How to Style Legislative Terms

Step by step instructions to Style Legislative Terms Step by step instructions to Style Legislative Terms Step by step instructions to Style Legislative Terms By Mark Nichol Upper casing style for words and expressions identified with enactment and global understandings is genuinely direct, yet here are a few notes about treatment: Constitutions The expression â€Å"US Constitution† (or â€Å"United States Constitution,† however the structure with initials alone is adequate) ought to be promoted all things considered, as should names of state constitutions (â€Å"the California Constitution,† for instance), yet the word all alone is lowercased even as an ensuing reference to a particular report. The equivalent is valid for a word for parts of a constitution, for example, article. Names of explicit changes to the US Constitution are promoted, yet whether words or numerals are utilized to demonstrate them is dependent upon which authority is utilized: The Chicago Manual of Style, the style manual of record for book distributers, gets for the most part illuminating numbers up to one hundred, however the Associated Press Stylebook, which recommends style for papers (a few magazines and many Web destinations hold fast to it also), utilizes numerals for 10 and up. Along these lines, compose â€Å"Thirteenth Amendment† or â€Å"13th Amendment† as indicated by the style your self-chose or remotely named style control suggests. Proposed revisions to the Constitution are regularly recognized by their main advocate (for instance, â€Å"the Bricker Amendment†) or their points (â€Å"the Equal Rights Amendment,† however a few people contend that on the grounds that there is no such alteration, just a development to pass one, it ought not be approved with capitalization). Bills and Acts A proposition for another law established by the US Congress is offered as a bill. A bill proposed in the House of Representatives is given the body’s initials and a number (HR 99), trailed by the name of the bill; a Senate is recognized comparatively (S 13). (Likewise with US and different contractions, the initials are frequently trailed by periods, yet this style is pointless.) This style isn’t precisely reflected in state and nearby enactment; for instance, in the California Assembly, what could be compared to the House of Representatives, a bill is shortened AB (for â€Å"Assembly Bill.†) Whenever passed, the bill turns into a demonstration, for example, the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Repeal Act of 2010. (Note that the time of establishment is regularly yet not in every case some portion of the official name of the demonstration.) In nonexclusive use, even to a particular demonstration, the word demonstration is lowercased, however numerous administrative bodies and related distributions underwrite it when it alludes to a particular demonstration, as in â€Å"The Act would switch a long-standing military arrangement that oppresses gay help personnel.† Numerous different names for enactment exist, including code, mandate, and rule. These words are promoted as a feature of the name of a collection of laws, for example, â€Å"Civil Code† or â€Å"Municipal Code,† yet are in any case lowercased. Arrangements and Such Terminology for arrangements incorporates formal and casual styles. For instance, one eminent example’s formal name is the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, yet the settlement related with the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks is casually called the SALT bargain (with arrangement lowercased in light of the fact that that isn't the official name). A comparative global comprehension is alluded to as an understanding, as in â€Å"the Sykes-Picot Agreement.† Then there is a truce, which is only a discontinuance of threats that could possibly be trailed by a harmony arrangement. Numerous eminent truces have happened, requiring explicit terminology, for example, â€Å"the Korean War Armistice Agreement,† however the default occasion, that formalizing the finish of World War I, is alluded to just as â€Å"the Armistice.† Need to improve your English in a short time a day? Get a membership and begin accepting our composing tips and activities day by day! Continue learning! Peruse the Style class, check our mainstream posts, or pick a related post below:Possessive of Proper Names Ending in SWhat is the Difference Between Metaphor and Simile?

World War II Essays - World War II, Military Strategy, Free Essays

World War II Essays - World War II, Military Strategy, Free Essays World War II In the early morning long stretches of September 1, 1939, the German armed forces walked into Poland. On September 3 the British and French amazed Hitler by announcing war on Germany, however they had no designs for rendering dynamic help to the Poles. The Battle of Britain In the mid year of 1940, Hitler ruled Europe from the North Cape to the Pyrenees. His one staying dynamic enemy?Britain, under another head administrator, Winston Churchill?vowed to keep battling. Regardless of whether it could was flawed. The British armed force had left a large portion of its weapons on the sea shores at Dunkirk. Stalin was in no state of mind to challenge Hitler. The U.S., stunned by the fall of France, started the first peacetime induction in quite a while history and significantly expanded its military financial plan, however general sentiment, albeit thoughtful to Britain, was against getting into the war. The Germans wanted to curb the British by starving them out. In June 1940 they attempted the Battle of the Atlantic, utilizing submarine fighting to cut the British abroad life savers. The Germans presently had submarine bases in Norway and France. At the beginning the Germans had just 28 submarines, however more were being built?enough to keep Britain in peril until the spring of 1943 and to carry on the fight for quite a long time from that point. Attack was the quick method to polish off Britain, however that implied crossing the English Channel; Hitler would not chance it except if the British flying corps could be killed first. Therefore, the Battle of Britain was battled noticeable all around, not on the sea shores. In August 1940 the Germans propelled sunlight assaults against ports and landing strips and in September against inland urban communities. The goal was to draw out the British contenders and decimate them. The Germans neglected to deal with another gadget, radar, which significantly expanded the British warriors' adequacy. Since their own misfortunes were excessively high, the Germans needed to change to late evening shelling toward the finish of September. Among at that point and May 1941 they made 71 significant assaults on London and 56 on different urban areas, however the harm they fashioned was too unpredictable to even consider being militarily unequivocal. On September 17, 1940, Hitler delayed the intru sion uncertainly, in this manner yielding thrashing in the Battle of Britain. U.S. Help to Britain The U.S. surrendered exacting lack of bias in the European war and moved toward a showdown with Japan in Asia and the Pacific Ocean. U.S. also, British meetings, started in January 1941, decided a fundamental methodology for the occasion of a U.S. passage into the war, specifically, that both would fixate their exertion on Germany, leaving Japan, if need be, to be managed later. In March 1941 the U.S. Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act and appropriated an underlying $7 billion to loan or rent weapons and other guide to any nations the president may assign. By this implies the U.S. planned to guarantee triumph over the Axis without including its own soldiers. By pre-fall of 1941, be that as it may, the U.S. was in a condition of undeclared war with Germany. In July, U.S. Marines were positioned in Iceland, which had been involved by the British in May 1940, and from that point the U.S. Naval force assumed control over the errand of accompanying caravans in the waters west of Iceland. In September President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved ships on caravan obligation to assault Axis war vessels. The German Invasion of the USSR The war's most enormous experience started on the morning of June 22, 1941, when marginally in excess of 3 million German soldiers attacked the USSR. Albeit German arrangements had been noticeable for a considerable length of time and had been discussed straightforwardly among the negotiators in Moscow, the Soviet powers were shocked. Stalin, his trust in the nation's military capacity shaken by the Finnish war, had would not permit any counteractivity inspired by a paranoid fear of inciting the Germans. In addition, the Soviet military authority had reasoned that quick assault, as it had been rehearsed in Poland and France, would not be conceivable on the size of a Soviet-German war; the two sides would in this way keep themselves for the initial a little while in any event to fighting along the wilderness. The Soviet armed force had 2.9 million soldiers on the western fringe and dwarfed the Germans by two to one in tanks and by two

Saturday Roadtrip

Saturday Roadtrip So this past Saturday, I set out on the open road with some of my friends for a little fun outside of the city. Step One: Acquire vehicle. Now at first, I was a little confused. I didnt know if this was a minivan or a sports utility vehicle. It was a strange hybrid of sorts, but the nice part was that it only had 1200 miles on it, and it still had the new car smell. My first leg of the trip brought me to Lawrence, MA where I spent about 10 hours doing some manual labor for Habitat for Humanity. The two tasks for the day was to remove from siding from the house theyre rehab-ing and paint new clapboards for the house. Given my acrophobia and just general disappointment in the way ladders are built, I opted to paint. Over lunch, we were approached by a nice old man who asked us if we were from MIT. Somehow, we got onto the topic of organic chemistry. Over the course of the conversation, he let slip the fact that he actually designed the course. Turns out he was Professor Emeritus Frederick Greene. He was at MIT before my grandpa graduated from high school, and here he was climbing up on ladders building houses. He also shared some interesting facts about MIT back in the days. (In the style of Sam) DID YOU KNOW? MIT students used to have to take: 4 sememsters of Math 4 semesters of Physics 2 semesters of Chemistry (No advanced placement credit awarded) Today, the requirement is half that much. After leaving Lawrence, we headed back to MIT. Later, we went out to appreciate the wonder of cheese fries, malts, and portobello mushroom burgers at Fuddruckers. I kinda ruined my appetite by finishing half of my Mocha malt before my burger was ready, but somehow, I can forgive myself. (I have a slight sweet tooth). /End Day I was originally scheduled to leave for New York that evening to visit Mitra except when I discovered that I misread my ticket for 6 pm as a 9 pm flight at 7 pm, it was too late. I need to get my eyes checked. Maybe next weekend?

Biography of Rupert Brooke Poet-Soldier

Rupert Brooke was a poet, academic, campaigner, and aesthete who died serving in World War One, but not before his verse and literary friends established him as one of the leading poet-soldiers in British history. His poems are staples of military services, but the work has been accused of glorifying war. In all fairness, although Brooke did see the carnage first hand, he didnt get the chance to see how World War I developed. Childhood Born in 1887, Rupert Brooke experienced a comfortable childhood in a rarified atmosphere, living near--and then attending--the school Rugby, a famed British institution where his father worked as a housemaster. The boy soon grew into a man whose handsome figure transfixed admirers regardless of gender: almost six foot tall, he was academically clever, good at sports--he represented the school in cricket and, of course, rugby--and had a disarming character. He was also highly creative: Rupert wrote verse throughout his childhood, having allegedly gained a love of poetry from reading Browning. Education A move to Kings College, Cambridge, in 1906 did nothing to dim his popularity--friends included E.M. Forster, Maynard Keynes and Virginia Stephens (later Woolf)--while he broadened into acting and socialism, becoming president of the Universitys branch of the Fabian Society. His studies in the classics may have suffered as a result, but Brooke moved in elite circles, including that of the famous Bloomsbury set. Moving outside Cambridge, Rupert Brooke lodged in Grantchester, where he worked on a thesis and created poems devoted to his ideal of English country life, many of which formed part of his first collection, simply entitled Poems 1911. In addition, he visited Germany, where he learned the language. Depression and Travel Brookes life now began to darken, as an engagement to one girl--Noel Olivier--was complicated by his affection for Ka (or Katherine) Cox, one of his fellows from the Fabian society. Friendships were soured by the troubled relationship and Brooke suffered something which has been described as a mental breakdown, causing him to travel restlessly through England, Germany and, on the advice of his Doctor who prescribed rest, Cannes. However, by September 1912 Brooke seemed to have recovered, finding companionship and patronage with an old Kings student called Edward Marsh, a civil servant with literary tastes and connections. Brooke completed his thesis and gained election to a fellowship at Cambridge whilst captivating a new social circle, whose members included Henry James, W.B. Yeats, Bernard Shaw, Cathleen Nesbitt--with whom he was particularly close--and Violet Asquith, daughter of the Prime Minister. He also campaigned in support of Poor Law reform, prompting admirers to propose a life in parliament. In 1913 Rupert Brooke traveled again, first to the United States - where he wrote a series of dazzling letters and more formal articles - and then through islands down to New Zealand, finally pausing in Tahiti, where he wrote some of his more fondly acclaimed poetry. He also found more love, this time with a native Tahitian called Taatamata; however, a shortage of funds caused Brook to return to England in July 1914.  War broke out a few weeks later. Rupert Brooke Enters the Navy / Action in North Europe Applying for a commission in the Royal Naval Division--which he gained easily as Marsh was the secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty--Brooke saw action in the defense of Antwerp during early October 1914. The British forces were soon overrun, and Brooke experienced a marching retreat through the devastated landscape before arriving safely in Bruges. This was Brookes only experience of combat. He returned to Britain awaiting redeployment and, during the next few weeks of training and preparation, Rupert caught flu, the first in a series of wartime illnesses. More importantly for his historical reputation, Brooke also wrote five poems which were to establish him among the canon of First World War writers, the War Sonnets: Peace, Safety, The Dead, a second The Dead, and The Soldier. Brooke Sails to the Mediterranean On February 27th, 1915 Brooke sailed for the Dardanelles, although problems with enemy mines led to a change of destination and a delay in deployment. Consequently, by March 28th Brooke was in Egypt, where he visited the pyramids, partook in the usual training, suffered sunstroke and contracted dysentery. His war sonnets were now becoming famous throughout Britain, and Brooke refused an offer from high command to leave his unit, recover,  and serve away from the front lines. Death of Rupert Brooke By April 10th Brooks ship was on the move again, anchoring off the island of Skyros on April 17th. Still suffering from his earlier ill-health, Rupert now developed blood poisoning from an insect bite, placing his body under fatal strain. He died in the afternoon of April 23rd, 1915, aboard a hospital ship in Tris Boukes Bay. His friends buried him under a stone cairn on Skyros later that day, although his mother arranged for a grander tomb after the war. A collection of Brookes later work, 1914 and Other Poems, was published in swiftly after, in June 1915; it sold well. A Legend Forms An established and rising poet with a strong academic reputation, important literary friends and potentially career-changing political links, Brookes death was reported in The Times newspaper; his obituary contained a piece purportedly by Winston Churchill, although it read as little more than a recruiting advert. Literary friends and admirers wrote powerful--often poetic--eulogies, establishing Brooke, not as a lovelorn wandering poet and deceased soldier, but as a  mythologized golden warrior, a creation which remained in post-war culture. Few biographies, no matter how small, can resist quoting the comments of W.B. Yeats, that Brooke was the most handsome man in Britain, or an opening line from Cornford, A young Apollo, golden haired. Even though some had harsh words for him--Virginia Woolf later commented on occasions when Brookes puritan upbringing appeared beneath his normally carefree exterior--a legend was formed. Rupert Brooke: An Idealistic Poet Rupert Brooke wasnt a war poet like Wilfred Owen or Siegfried Sassoon, soldiers who confronted the horrors of war and affected their nations conscience. Instead, Brookes work, written in the early months of the war when success was still in sight, was full of cheerful friendship and idealism, even when faced with potential death. The war sonnets swiftly became focal points for patriotism, thanks largely to their promotion by church and government--The Soldier formed part of the 1915 Easter Day service in St. Pauls Cathedral, the focal point of British religion--while the image and ideals of a brave youth dying young for his country were projected onto Brookes tall, handsome stature and charismatic nature. Poet Or Glorifier of War While Brookes work is often said to have either reflected or affected the mood of the British public between late 1914 and late 1915, he was also--and often still is--criticized. For some, the idealism of the war sonnets is actually a jingoistic glorification of war, a carefree approach to death which ignored the carnage and brutality. Was he out of touch with reality, having lived such a life? Such comments usually date from later in the war, when the high death tolls and unpleasant nature of trench warfare became apparent, events which Brooke wasnt able to observe and adapt to. However, studies of Brookes letters reveal that he certainly was aware of the desperate nature of conflict, and many have speculated on the impact further time would have had as both the war and his skill as a  poet, developed. Would he have reflected the reality of the war? We cannot know. Lasting Reputation Although few of his other poems are considered great, when modern literature looks away from World War One there is a definite place for Brooke and his works from Grantchester and Tahiti. He is classed as one of the Georgian poets, whose verse style had noticeably progressed from previous generations, and as a man whose true masterpieces were still to come. Indeed, Brooke contributed to two volumes entitled Georgian Poetry in 1912. Nevertheless, his most famous lines will always be those opening The Soldier, words still occupying a key place in military tributes and ceremonies today. Born: 3rd August 1887 in Rugby, BritainDied: 23rd April 1915 on Skyros, GreeceFather: William BrookeMother:  Ruth Cotterill, nà ©e Brooke

Critique Of The Doctrine Of Inalienable, Natural Rights Essay

In â€Å"Critique of the Doctrine of Inalienable, Natural Rights†, Jeremy Bentham aims to show the reader why the Declaration of Rights is a troubling and terrible document, or as he describes it, a â€Å"dangerous nonsense†. In his critique, Bentham describes natural rights as â€Å"nonsense upon stilts† and says they do not exist, but they are actually made up. He then goes on to attack the Declaration’s vagueness and contradictions, saying it will lead to constant unrest. The Declaration, Bentham says, is condoning revolution and giving grounds for permanent revolution and by doing this, they diminish the roles of government and other future authority. Despite a few confusions, Bentham’s argument is successful because he proves the Declaration is full of confusions and contradictions that can lead to dangerous acts. Natural rights are something we should have, but they are not â€Å"natural† and instead made-up, as Bentham suggests. In Bentham’s preliminary observations, he calls out the overall problems of the Declaration. A huge problem with the Declaration is that since it is vague, it is essentially never-ending dangerous nonsense (p.2). Words can have many different meanings so if you aren’t specific, you can confuse people. In this case, confusion can lead to destruction. Its lack of specific guidelines is troubling. The people who speak of natural rights do not know what they’re talking about, but they still go on about how their rights cannot be taken away from them and theyShow MoreRelatedJohn Locke And John Rousseau1430 Words   |  6 Pagesfreedom to a sovereign, which he refers to throughout the text as the Leviathan. Men forge a social contract among themselves in which he gives up the rights afforded to him in the state of nature in exchange for protection. The Leviathan is a figure with absolute control. They have the sole authority within the political scene, curbing man’s natural egoism and saving them from themselves. The Leviathan would protect man from his innately violent, egoist nature. He would set forth a consistent authorityRead MoreJohn Locke And The Locke Of The United States5485 Words   |  22 Pageshe wanted to make this new country based on the basic fundamentals. He wanted to base the country on what was considered the natural laws. Jefferson had many philosophical minds to ponder when writing the document, such as Aristotle and most importantly John Locke. The writings of John Locke were basic in the idea that they focused on the natural rights of people, the rights given by God. Locke had theories when it came to religious tolerance. Locke believed that earthly judges, the state in particularRead More Copyright in Cyberspace Essay4853 Words   |  20 Pagescyberspace. We have the technology and insight to do so. Now we must begin the process of breaking the code of lawlessness and replacing it with the code of order. The Social Value of Copyright A copyright is a federal property right granted for original works of authorship that are fixed in a tangible medium. To qualify as original, the work must exhibit only a modicum of originality; that is, it must only be slightly original. 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Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesMichael Adas for the American Historical Association TEMPLE UNIVERSITY PRESS PHILADELPHIA Temple University Press 1601 North Broad Street Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122 www.temple.edu/tempress Copyright  © 2010 by Temple University All rights reserved Published 2010 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Essays on twentieth century history / edited by Michael Peter Adas for the American Historical Association. p. cm.—(Critical perspectives on the past) Includes bibliographical

Importance of the Curriculum to the Society Free Essays

PURPOSE OF THE CURRICULUM TO THE SOCIETY Introduction In 1995 Hornby described education as a process of training and instruction of children and young people in educational institutions which is designed to give knowledge and develop skills useful to the society. This process is centred by a number of planned activities which hold the potentials of imparting the skills significant to the society just as the definition points out. An outline or structure of these activities is what makes up an educational curriculum. We will write a custom essay sample on Importance of the Curriculum to the Society or any similar topic only for you Order Now Pillai (1984; p5) defines the curriculum as a comprehensive plan for an educational training programme or course to offer new or improved manpower to fulfil the rising needs of a dynamic society . Below is a discussion of some of the purposes of the curriculum to the society. * The curriculum serves the function of a tool for societal development. The curriculum include important and knowledge to be imparted on the learners, this is to say that there is a supplement of ideas on the students despite their innate intelligence. These new ideas help in discoveries that may assist in the society’s growth for example, new ways of increasing agricultural productivity. A student at school may encounter an idea that may help in the increase of agricultural outputs and if he implements this new idea, the society to which he belongs, would develop economically. A point which Jacobs (1997, p23) agrees with by saying that â€Å"education is the realization of each person’s unique potentialities thus, education focuses on the social conditions that block the fullest realisation of individual potentialities as it emphasizes on the changes in the present system required to bring about a more humanistic society†. This is just to say that education allows learners to make important contributions to the societies to which they belong, on the other hand enhancing the development of their particular societies. The curriculum also works as a source of societal cohesion. Webster (2011, p365) described a society as an enduring and cooperating social group whose members have developed organized patterns of relationships through interaction with one another. This togetherness is partially achieved through the curriculum in that the curriculum holds distinctive aims and objectives and these are shared amongst all kinds of members of education al institutions across the nation. This is to say that there are similar goals set across the communities of the nation despite the societal differences. To achieve these goals and objectives the society members must share ideas and cooperate and this fosters cohesion as members of different communities are inclined to come together and formulate ways by which they can attain their shared goals. The curriculum serving the purpose of cohesion fostering element amongst members of the society. * The curriculum holds the purpose of effective societal problem solving. Basing on one of the ideologies on which education is found, it can be easily said that education can be used for effective societal problem solving, whereby the curriculum happens to be an integral part of the education system. Adopting such an ideology thus education for problem solving, it means that the curriculum in this case must pertain to such an ideology. Whereby it has to include activities and experiences that will allow students attain effective methods of problem solving. In this case the curriculum being used as a tool for effective problem solving. If student undergo experiences of such a curriculum it means they will positively contribute to their particular societies in terms of problem solving. Hence the curriculum depicting the purpose of effective problem solving in the society. Brosnan (1999, p64) agrees by saying that â€Å"the individual is a unique personality who finds his greatest satisfaction in self-expression in response to the changing world†. Thus humans find it less of a burden when they speak out their suggestions and solutions to particular problems affecting the society and this is exactly what the curriculum offers through the educational system. The curriculum works as tool for awareness in the society. In the experiences included in the educational curriculum, there are relevant topics that each and every person is to be aware of, for example in Social studies are concerning human rights, child and women’s welfare. These are some of the important things that are rendered to the students unde r the guidance of the curriculum, when these learners accommodate such ideas and dissipate them on those that happen to be of a shared society as these learners, the curriculum may work as an agent of awareness. This would be so as the learners would function as messengers in their societies as they will let the others know their rights and entitlements. Hence the curriculum serving the purpose of an awareness agent in the society. * The curriculum serves the purpose of societal problem identification. This idea comes about during the development of the curriculum, where a number of steps are covered on of which is that of identifying the background of a nation before coming up with the curriculum. As the professionals struggle to come up with basis of a country they also realise the problem that a nation goes through both in the social economic and cultural context. These problems are implicitly addressed in the activities that are included in the curriculum, thus for example commerce studies which equips students with commercial skills, may help eradicate financial problems that members of the society encounter. Hence the curriculum serving the function of problem identification and solution implementation in the society. * The curriculum as an element for cultural preservation and continuity in the society. Knowing that different societies hold different beliefs and values, the curriculum put into account these differences. This is done when the professionals are formulating the curriculum they tend to include some of the major beliefs and values that the children must be equipped with in older to achieve cultural preservation and continuity. Inclusion of experiences that hold cultural values does not only ensure cultural continuity but also enable the students to recognise their national and cultural identities, how they are developed, and how they can be maintained in their respective societies (O’Neill, 1990; p78). Thus the curriculum being in the position of enhancing cultural preservation and continuity in the society. * Ethical function of the curriculum The curriculum being at the centre of the education system, it holds all sorts of functions along with it, one of which includes social control. In this case the curriculum helps in maintenance of law and older in the society, whereby the curriculum gives learners the access to instruction for proper behaviour and personal conduct, for example, at schools children are taught not to steak from others rather to ask for whatever they want in a polite manner. This is the expected mode of conduct which helps reduce cases of increased rates of thieves as these youngsters are nurtured to behave in the required way in their early stages of life. In this case inclusion of such elements in the curriculum enables members of the society to be morally sound. Hence the curriculum serving the function of ensuring ethical conduct. * The curriculum helping in shaping the society The International Educational Agency (I. E. R) report (2006, p3), pin pointed that the curriculum as the core of the education system helps equip students with better skills of reflection which is a vital element for students to grow as learners and as useful citizens of the society. Coupled with the skills of gathering and organising information students have constant opportunities to practice responsible self-direction in the society. In addition, much of the curriculum is concerned with allowing students to learn about how people live in other places, times and how they are expected to influence the society. These understandings help students to develop high levels of self-awareness. This all can be achieved through the curriculum hence the curriculum helping in shaping the society by producing students that will be able to effectively self-guide themselves in the society. Conclusion Despite the strengths that govern the curriculum, there are a lot of shortfalls that can be corrected, for example inclusion of the rights of those in minority, thus the disabled, elderly just to mention a few. These also happen to be part and parcel of the society, whereby the topics of awareness included in the curriculum seem to dwell much on the abled. Consideration of teacher’s expertise when it comes to their familiarity with the materials and methods prescribed to be used in the teaching and learning process, this is to say that the curriculum indicates that it assumes that teachers are conversant with the materials they are expected to use in the teaching and learning process. Even though the curriculum assigns teachers to particular topic to teach, it does not opt for a follow up on whether there is observation of the prescribed topics and see if the required values are really being imparted on to the learners for the society’s benefit. REFERENCES Brosnan, M. J. (1999). Modelling Technophobia: a case for word processing Computers in Human Behaviour, New York; Guilford Hornby, A. S. (1995). Oxford dictionary: advanced learners edition 5, London; Oxford press International Education Agency, (2006). Report: Society and environment curriculum, revised edition: I. E. A Jacobs, D. (1996). LISREL8 user’s reference guide, Illinois, USA: Scientific Software International. O’Neill, W. F. (1990). Educational Ideologies Contemporary Expressions of Educational Philosophy, Iowa: Kendall / Hunt Publishing Company Pillai B. M. (1984). Smart schools: Better thinking and learning for every child, New York, USA: The Free Press. Webster, M. (2011). Higher Education in the 21st Century: Futures, New Jersey: USA Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF FOUNDATION STUDIES COURSE TITLE: CURRICULUM THEORY AND PRACTICE COOURSE CODE: EDU 3102 TO: Mrs O Nampanda FROM: Phunziro B. M Mphwina ASSIGNMENT: THE PURPOSE OF THE CURRICULUM TO THE SOCIETY DUE DATE 22/03/13 How to cite Importance of the Curriculum to the Society, Essay examples

System Security and User Privacy-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Questions: Define the Concepts of symmetric key encryption, public key encryption, and hashing and explain which of these techniques are used for confidentiality and authentication 2.You are a security administrator responsible for your organization's security. Using the content of the book, describe in detail at least two ways to defend your company from denial of service attacks 3.You are a security administrator responsible for your organization's security, list rules for working in secure areas. Please include how should trash bins be protected? and What can be done to reduce the dangers of desktop PC theft and unauthorized use?4.The two types of filtering IDSs use are deep Packet inspection and packet stream analysis, explain why they are important and why they are processing intensive. Answers: 1.Encryption Encryption is a process of data protection by converting the data into a code that can be only accessed by the authorized user. Encryption prevents the unauthorized use or access of data or information. Encryption is one of the most effective methods of achieving data security (Goshwe, 2013). In order to access an encrypted file, one must obtain the security key or passwords that will be enable them to decrypt the file. The unencrypted text before the process of encryption is termed as plain text while the encrypted data in termed as cipher text. The process of encryption mainly uses an algorithm to encrypt or transfer the information into a cipher text. This method is used to protect sensitive data such as credit or debit card number by encoding and transferring it into cipher text (Shinge Patil, 2014). Encryption ensures trusted delivery of sensitive information. There are mainly two main types of encryption namely symmetric encryption and asymmetric or public key encryption. Symmetric Encryption Symmetric key encryption is a more secure method of encryption as it uses a common secret key for both encryption and decryption. The data of each key is self-encrypted for additional protection. The algorithm related to the encryption is Data Encryption Standard or DES, which uses 56- bit encryption. However, the Advanced Encryption Standard or AES that uses 128-bit or a 256-bit key encryption is considered as more reliable (Agrawal Mishra, 2012). Symmetric key encryption is simpler and faster as it uses only one key. The major drawback of this method of encryption is that only a private key is needed in both encryption and decryption and if this key is lost, the receiver can never decrypt the information. Another obligation of this system is that the sender and receiver must exchange the key in a secure manner. Asymmetric or public key Encryption Asymmetric or public key encryption needs two different keys (public and private) in order to encrypt and decrypt data. The key that can be shared with everyone and generally used for encryption. The key that is kept secret and used for decryption is called private key (Thambiraja, Ramesh Umarani, 2012). Both the keys can be employed for encryption or decryption. This type of encryption is generally seen in web browsers to ensure a secure connection and also in digital signature (Hoffman, 2012). Hashing Hashing is the transference of a string value into a smaller or shorter value of fixed length that represents the original string. This technique is majorly used in database in indexing and to retrieve the items or values present in that particular database. This is mainly done as it is faster to search and find items using a shorter hashed key instead of using the original value. It is one of the major encryption techniques as well, that hides the real value of an arbitrary sized data or string and transforms it into a fixed sized value. Symmetric and asymmetric key encryption is generally used for authentication and maintaining the confidentiality of data. The asymmetric key encryption is mainly used in digital signatures attached with electronic documents that verify the authentication of the sender. In symmetric key encryption, the sender share a unique key with the receiver, which the receiver uses to decrypt the data send. Therefore, the receiver or the user who have access to the private key can read or access the data. Thus, it maintains the confidentiality of the data as only the sender and receiver is able to access the data. 2.Secure Networks Denial of service attack or DoS attack is a cyber attack where the attacker aims to make a network or system resources unavailable for the legitimate users by disrupting the services of the host connected with internet indefinitely (Gunasekhar et al., 2014). This is done by flooding the network with excessive unwanted messages asking the network or the server to authenticate the requests that generally have invalid return addresses. Thus, it becomes difficult for the legitimate users to access the network. Dos attacks may crash a server thus leading to the wastage of time and money. Denial of Service attack is dangerous in sense it can paralyze even a well-structured network for days, freezing all the online services of the company (Liu, Liu Saddik, 2013). The recommended ways to prevent the denial of service attack are as follows- 1) Installation of routers and firewalls along with DoS mitigation appliances- Routers can be well configured to prevent the ping attacks by filtering the invalid IP addresses and non essential protocols. Routers can however prove to be ineffective against a sophisticated spoofed attack. Firewalls are capable of shutting down a targeted flow related to an attack. DoS mitigation appliances can be used for load balancing. Proper server configuration is essential to minimize the effect of Dos attack. An administrator can limit the resources, an application can use and how it will respond to the requests. This will prevent the allowance of the invalid requests into the server thus preventing the Dos attack (Gupta, Joshi Misra, 2012). 2) Over provisioning- this is another recommended way to handle DoS attack. Over provisioning refers to allocating excess bandwidth or redundant network devices in order to handle DoS attacks in the system. The advantage of buying an outsourced provider of service is that the extra bandwidth can be bought when the company needs it rather than making an expensive capital investment of buying the redundant networks interface and devices. A company however, has no idea that a DoS attack is coming and hence the company needs to acts as quickly as possible in this approach. The primary aim of any DoS attack is o consume the internet bandwidth and hence a well structured and equipped managed hosting provider is to be selected for preventing the attack. These equipments are fixed in front of the normal servers and are programmed to detect and filter out the malicious traffic (Hashmi, Saxena Saini, 2012). These systems are needed to be updated constantly by the operations team in order to r emain up to date with the latest threats. The only disadvantage of this system is that, it cannot handle the volumetric attacks and becomes incapable when the attack exceeds the network capacity. Cloud Mitigation provider is an effective over provisioning method. The cloud mitigation providers are expert in delivering DoS mitigation in cloud. Cloud mitigation providers have developed massive amounts of network bandwidth and capacity of mitigation over multiple sites round the internet. It can take up any sort of network traffic and filter the traffic to send only the validated traffic into the destination. The network security engineers who monitor the latest DDoS tactics for better protection manage this (Deshmukh Devadkar, 2015). 3) Server hardening is another recommended but less used method of controlling the DoS attack. It deals with hardening of IP Tables to permit only those traffic that is expected by the company. It also configures server in such a way that it is capable of auto recover on occasion of system failure. It makes the server more resilient of the requests thus preventing the DoS attacks (Sharma, Singh Singh, 2013). 3.Access Control Working in secure areas is ensured to prevent unauthorized access or damage to the confidential information of the organization. This is done by protecting and defining the security perimeters with appropriate security barriers and entry control. The rules listed for protection includes commensuration of the identified risk (Peltier, 2016). The rules for working in secure areas are listed below- 1) Unsupervised work in secure areas should be avoided to the best and when no one is working in the security area, the area should be locked and checked periodically. 2) Electronic devices capable of recording or copying mass amounts of information should be forbidden in the secure areas for example, Smartphone, camera, USB, laptops and similar devices. 3) The security perimeters should be clearly defined and the strength of each perimeter depends on the security requirement of the assets within the perimeter. The security perimeter or barrier includes card controlled entry doors, walls or manned reception desks to protect the secure areas from unauthorized access. The access to those areas of the organization will be restricted to authorized personnel only. Moreover, the areas should be equipped with suitable intruder detection system. This system should be regularly checked and tested to ensure that they are in perfect working condition. 4) Inspections of personnel entering or leaving the secure areas should follow strict notification and compliance. The entry and departure of the employee and the visitors are recorded on the visitor access log and they are to be granted access to the protected areas or organizations information only for specific and authorized purposes. Furthermore, authorization controls are to be used to authorize and validate their access. 5) Discretionary access control can be used for working in secure areas. In this method, the owner of the resource gives access rights to the other users according to his discretion. 6) The server room should be locked and should allow only authorized person to enter to ensure that the security of the protected areas are not tampered with. Setting up a proper surveillance is necessary for working in secure areas. A video surveillance camera should be installed to supplement other rules of working in secure areas (Chen et al., 2012). 7) The backup of the sensitive data should be properly stored to prevent unauthorized access. The backup files should be password protected to prevent unauthorized access. Or else, the backup file may be kept offsite to prevent intruders access. Trash bins can act as an important source information and thus it is needed to be protected in order to prevent data loss. Trash bins are protected by ensuring that no confidential information is discarded into the trash bin. The wastes in the trash bin are properly disposed to prevent data theft. Moreover before disposing the contents of the trash bin, it is to be ensured that it does not contain any sensitive information or information that can be misused. In order to reduce the danger s of desktop PC theft, the individual desktop Pcs present in the office premises can be locked onto their desks with a cable. In order to reduce the danger of unauthorized use, it has to be ensured that every PC has a login screen with a complex password so that no intruder can use it easily. The password should be strong and un-common so that the intruder has little room for guessing the password and accessing the PC. The laptops however can make use of the fingerprint authentication or face scanning security options to keep secured and prevent it from unauthorized access (Jain Nandakumar, 2012). 4.Firewalls Deep Packet Inspection Deep packet inspection is an effective way of packet filtering, which functions in the application layer of the OSI reference model. Deep packet inspection renders it possible to identify, classify and block certain packets with specific data that the convectional packet filtering cannot detect. DPI is generally used to allocate resources and streamline the flow of traffic. A high priority packet is routed to its destination ahead of less priority packets. DPI improves the network performance by preventing the peer-to-peer abuse. The security implication of DPI is widespread as it helps in identifying the originator of a specific packet (Bremler-Barr et al., 2014). It is process intensive as it uses data parallel approach to process large volumes of data. Deep packet works by inspecting the data part of the packet as it passes the point of inspection. It generally un-hides the presence of non compliance, viruses, spam and intrusion. Deep packet inspection helps in advanced network ma nagement and operation of security functions such as data mining. DPI is widely used by the telecommunication provides. It is important particularly because it mixes the objectives of intrusion detection system as well as intrusion prevention system with the help of a state-full firewall. This combination makes it possible to detect a number of attacks. DPI is used to overcome the buffer overflow attacks, denial of service attacks and illegal intrusion into the system. DPI is often capable of monitoring the layers 2 to 7 of OSI model. DPI can also be used against net neutrality (Thinh, Hieu Kittitornkun, 2012). This is significant because it inspects all the fields in packet including the IP header, TCP or UDP header and the message of the application. Certain attacks cannot be prevented if the firewall only looks at the application content. Deep packet inspection is processing intensive as it looks at all the fields of the packet and takes more time as well as processing power. Packet Stream Analysis Packet stream analysis intercepts and logs the traffic passing over a digital network. As the data in passed through the system or a network, a sniffer captures the contents of every packet and decodes the raw data present in the packet. It supervises and analyzes the content of the packets according to the set objectives or specifications. Packet stream analysis requires different IDS to maintain and compare a number of packets, which are examined to determine whether an attack is taking place into the system or not (Rueppel, 2012). This results in placing a heavy load of processing on the IDS. This effective filtering technique scans a series of packets at a time to determine the probability of an attack. Ids are important because they identify suspicious rackets that may be a cause of harm or a part of a probable attack. Packet stream analysis identifies a probable attack with the help of IDs and alerts network administrators of potential threats so that the suspicious packets can be dropped. IDs cannot drop the suspicious packets on its own (Sanders, 2017). Packet stream analysis is important because, only a single packet is not capable of determining certain types of attack and therefore the need of checking of multiple packets comes into play. It generally takes more than one packet to determine whether a network is symmetrically scanned or not, whether the TCP is half open or even a probability of denial of service attack (Asrodia Patel, 2012). The packet stream analysis is processing intensive because every fields of a series of packets are inspected. This is necessary for defining the probability of attack and thus has more processing power (Singh, Lozano Ott, 2013). References Agrawal, M., Mishra, P. (2012). A comparative survey on symmetric key encryption techniques. International Journal on Computer Science and Engineering, 4(5), 877. Asrodia, P., Patel, H. (2012). Network traffic analysis using packet sniffer. International journal of engineering research and applications, 2(3), 854-856. Bremler-Barr, A., Harchol, Y., Hay, D., Koral, Y. (2014, December). Deep packet inspection as a service. In Proceedings of the 10th ACM International on Conference on emerging Networking Experiments and Technologies (pp. 271-282). ACM. Chen, C., Sun, L., Shao, Y., Hu, Z., Shi, Q. (2012, January). Iems: An intelligent environment monitoring system of server room. In Intelligent Computation Technology and Automation (ICICTA), 2012 Fifth International Conference on (pp. 189-192). IEEE. Deshmukh, R. V., Devadkar, K. K. (2015). Understanding DDoS attack its effect in cloud environment. Procedia Computer Science, 49, 202-210. Goshwe, N. Y. (2013). Data encryption and decryption using RSA Algorithm in a Network Environment. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security (IJCSNS), 13(7), 9. Gunasekhar, T., Rao, K. T., Saikiran, P., Lakshmi, P. S. (2014). A survey on denial of service attacks. Gupta, B. B., Joshi, R. C., Misra, M. (2012). Distributed denial of service prevention techniques. arXiv preprint arXiv:1208.3557. Hashmi, M. J., Saxena, M., Saini, R. (2012). Classification of DDoS attacks and their defense techniques using intrusion prevention system. International Journal of Computer Science and Communication Networks, 2(5), 607-14. Hoffman, P. (2012). Elliptic curve digital signature algorithm (dsa) for dnssec. Jain, A. K., Nandakumar, K. (2012). Biometric Authentication: System Security and User Privacy. IEEE Computer, 45(11), 87-92. Liu, S., Liu, X. P., El Saddik, A. (2013, February). Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks on load frequency control in smart grids. In Innovative Smart Grid Technologies (ISGT), 2013 IEEE PES (pp. 1-6). IEEE. Peltier, T. R. (2016). Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards: guidelines for effective information security management. CRC Press. Rueppel, R. A. (2012). Analysis and design of stream ciphers. Springer Science Business Media. Sanders, C. (2017). Practical packet analysis: Using Wireshark to solve real-world network problems. No Starch Press. Sharma, S., Singh, G., Singh, P. (2013). Security Enhancing of a LAN Network Using Hardening Technique. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 2(3), 174-181. Shinge, S. R., Patil, R. (2014). An encryption algorithm based on ASCII value of data. International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technologies, 5(6), 7232-4. Singh, V., Lozano, A. A., Ott, J. (2013, December). Performance analysis of receive-side real-time congestion control for WebRTC. In Packet Video Workshop (PV), 2013 20th International (pp. 1-8). IEEE. Thambiraja, E., Ramesh, G., Umarani, D. R. (2012). A survey on various most common encryption techniques. International journal of advanced research in computer science and software engineering, 2(7). Thinh, T. N., Hieu, T. T., Kittitornkun, S. (2012, May). A FPGA-based deep packet inspection engine for Network Intrusion Detection System. In Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and Information Technology (ECTI-CON), 2012 9th International Conference on (pp. 1-4). IEEE.

Woodrow Wilson (2460 words) Essay Example For Students

Woodrow Wilson (2460 words) Essay Woodrow WilsonPresident Woodrow Wilson regarded himself as the personal representative of thepeople. No one but the President, he said, seems to beexpected to look out for the general interests of the country(Internet1). He developed a program of progressive reform and asserted internationalleadership in building a new world order. In 1917 he proclaimed Americansentrance into World War I a crusade to make the world safe fordemocracy. Wilson had seen the difficulties of war. He was born inVirginia in 1856. The son of a Presbyterian minister who during the Civil Warwas a pastor in Augusta, Georgia, and during Reconstruction a professor in thecharred city of Columbia, South Carolina. After graduation from Princeton (thenthe College of New Jersey) and the University of Virginia Law School, Wilsonearned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University and entered upon an academiccareer. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson. Wilson advanced rapidly as aconservative young professor of political science and became president ofPrinceton in 1902. His growing national reputation led some conservativeDemocrats to consider him Presidential material. First they persuaded him to runfor Governor of New Jersey in 1910. In that campaign he asserted hisindependence of the conservatives and of the machine that had nominated him,endorsing a progressive platform, which he pursued as governor. He was nominatedfor President at the 1912 Democratic Convention and campaigned on a programcalled the New Freedom, which stressed individualism and states rights. In thethree-way election he received only 42 percent of the popular vote but anoverwhelming electoral vote. Wilson dealt with Congress very effectively in hispresidency. On April 2,1917, he asked Congress for a declaration of war onGermany. Massive American effort slowly tipped the balance in favor of theAllies. Wilson went before Congress in January 1918, to pronounce American waraims through a a series of ideas he had known as the Fourte en Points, this wouldestablish a general association of nations indubitably guaranteeing politicalindependence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. Afterthe Germans signed the Armistice in November 1918, Wilson went to Paris to tryto build an enduring peace. He later presented to the Senate the VersaillesTreaty, containing the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Versailles Treatywas seven votes shy of being ratifid by the senate. The President, against thewarnings of his doctors, had made a national tour to mobilize public sentimentfor the treaty. President Wilson had aswell have many interventions in countriessuch as: New Mexico, Mexico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua Exhausted,he suffered a stroke and nearly died. Tenderly nursed by his second wife, EdithBolling Galt, he lived until 1924. The League of Nations was a formerinternational organization that was formed after WORLD WAR I to promoteinternational peace and security. The League of Nations was provided int he useof the Fourteen Points. The basis of the League, the Covenant, was written intothe Treaty of Versailles and other peace treaties and provided for an assembly,a council, and a secretariat. A system of colonial mandates was also set up. TheU.S., which failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, never became a member. We will write a custom essay on Woodrow Wilson (2460 words) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Based in Geneva, the League proved useful in settling minor internationaldisputes, but was unable to stop aggression by major powers, Japans occupationof Manchuria (1931), Italys conquest of Ethiopia (1935-36), and Germanysseizure of Austria (1938). It collapsed early in World War II and dissolveditself in 1946. The League established the first pattern of permanentinternational organization and served as a model for its successor, the UNITEDNATIONS. The Treaty of Versailles, signed on 1871 at the end of theFranco-Prussian War by Bismarck. France was forced to give up most of Alsace andLorraine, pay a large indemnity, and accept a German army of occupation. TheVersailles Treaty of 1919 is the most famous of the treaties because it was thechief one ending World War I. The Big Four negotiating it were President WIlson,Premier Clemenceau, Prime Minister Llyod George, and Premier Oralndo. The treatycalled for the creation of the League of Nations. It forced on Germany theburden of reperat ions and placed limits on German armed forces. It restoredAlsace and Lorraine to France, gave Prussian Poland and most of West Prussia toPoland, made Danzig a free city, put Germanys colonies under the League ofNations, placed the Saar under French administration, called for plebiscites invarious territories newly freed from the Central Powers, mand called for thedemilitarization of the Rhineland. American opposition to the League of Nationsresulted in the refusal of the U.S. Senate to ratify the treaty. In 1935, AdolfHitler unilaterally abrogated most of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. TheTreaty of Paris was one of the most important treaties signed at or near Paris. The Treaty of 1763 was signed by Great Britain, France, and Spain. Together withthe Treaty of Hubertusburg it ended the Seven Years War. France lostCanada to Britain, Cuba and the Philippines were restored to Spain, and India ineffect passed to Britain(Internet 2). From this treaty dated the colonialand maritime supremacy of Britain. In the Treaty of 1783 Great Britain formallyacknowledged the independence of the Thirteen Colonies as the U.S. The treatyalso fixed the boundaries of the new nation. In addition, the warring Europeanpowers-Britain against France and Spain, with the Dutch as armedneutrals-effected a large-scale peace settlement. Spain reacquired the Floridasand Minorca from Britain, and Britain relinquished its restrictions on theFrench port of Dunkirk. Otherwise, the territorial dispositions of the 1763Treaty of Paris were reaffirmed. The Treaty of 1814 was concluded between Franceon the one hand and Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia on the other after thefirst abdic ation of NApoleon I. Its provisions never went into effect owing tothe return of Napoleon from Elba and the resumption of the war. The Treaty of1815 was signed after Napoleons final surrender. Many provisions of the treatyof 1814 and the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna remained binding. France wasreduced to its 1790 borders and was forced to pay 700 million francs inreparations plus the costs of an army of occupation for five years. After WorldWar I severeal treaties were signed (1919-20) in or near Paris, the mostimportant of which was the Treaty of Versailles After World War II separatetreaties were signed (1947) by the Allies at or near Paris with Italy, Romania,Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland. Woodrow Wilson had interventions with NewMexico. President Wilson had two fronts to worry about; Mexico and Europe. Belowhis country, the Mexican Revolution was in full swing. Wilson had made his movesin accordance to what he had felt was best for his country and its people. Thesame wen t for Europe. He was doing all he could do by just keeping the UnitedStates out of the war. However, in relation to Europe and the World War, Wilsonknew that the United States was not going to be able to stay out of the warforever. After all, the Germans were taking a greater toll on the merchant shipsin the Atlantic. To truely see the situation, one must look back at the electionof 1916. Presidents dont win elections by telling the people what they dontwant to hear. Wilson was up for re-election that year. He had been campaigningon the platform of peace. His opponent, Charles Hughes, had favored teh idea ofthe United States getting involved into World War I. Wilson used every politicaltactic he knew to bring Hughes down. Hughes was called the warcandidate(Biography of Woodrow Wilson). Later, Wilson would even use theslogan Wilson and Peace with Honor, or Hughes with Roosevelt andWar?(Internet 1) So Wilson did what he had to do in order to stay inoffice. By 1916, Wilson began to rea lize where his country stood in relation tothose that were fighting. He had been paying attention to the press to see theresults of the events that were unfolding. In particular, the Battle of theSomme struck President Wilson with deep concern. At this battle, the Britishwere on the offensive against the Germans. The British command called for a fiveday assualt with heavy cannon. After the shelling, the soldiers were expected tosimply walk over claim the land. The offensive failed and as a result, theBritish suffered casualties near 70,000 in just a few days time. At that time,the United States military personel numbered less than 150,000. The UnitedStates, at that rate, would have only been able to last for a few days if theyentered the war. This brings us to the main point of this article; Wilson had toget his armed forces up in numbers without breaking his campaign promise to hispeople. How was Wilson suppossed to do this? The answer was Pancho Villa. PanchoVilla was a very predi ctable man. After the events down in Agua Prieta, Villawas on a one course action, death to all Americans. Villa made his first move inJanuary of 1916. Engineers from El Paso were on their way to open up a mine downin Mexico. They had been given assurances that there was nothing to fear. Whileenroute by way of rail, the engineers were stopped and pulled off the train. Allwere put down on their knees and shot in the back of the head. Villa had begunto deliver his promise to the Americans. Wilson was aware of this. All he had todo was to wait for the right moment. Wilsons chance came in early March of1916. Sometime around the 6th of March, U.S. intelligence began to send reportsto Washington that Villa and his men had been seen along the border nearColumbus. These reports would continue up until the 9th of March when Villafinally made his attack. Although history plays the attack as a suprise, eventsleading up to the attack suggest that the U.S. government knew of Villaslocation and i ntentions. Just prior to the attack, Lieutenant George Patton, whowas being stationed at Columbus, was ordered, along with the remaining officers,to leave for a polo match near Deming, New Mexico. Patton would later remark inhis diary that he had never played the sport before. Also, when the attack didoccur, the press made a big deal about the machine guns being still in theirstorage cases. Had Columbus known of Villas location, it would have been likelythat the machine guns would probably had been readied. Throughout hispresidency, Wilson showed a pattern of bullying and deception, and great desireto involve the American people in wars that they had no desire to get into. Thefirst example is Mexico. Wilson had an intense personal hatred of MexicosPresident, General Victotiano Huerta, because he had suppressed a left-wingrevolution. This hatred led Wilson to try to provoke a war with Mexico. He gothis chance when a small number of Americans where arrested in Mexican port ofTampico. Knowing that Wilson was looking for an exuse for war, Huertaimmediately ordered the release of the Americans, and personally apologized tothem for the incident. But Wilson would not let the situation end at that. Hedemanded more apologies, and even worse demanded that some of the Mexicansinvolved salute the American flag! Imagine if you were a soldier in the AmericanArmy and were ordered by a foreign leader to salute a foreign flag. Of coursethe Mexicans refused, so Wilson got his chance to start a war, and launched asurprise attack on the barely defended Mexican city of Vera Cruz. Fortunatelyfor the youth of both countries, Huerta was not as eager for war as Wilson. Sohe got several Latin American governments to intercede. Wilson demanded that anypeace be on the condition of Huerta stepping down as president of Mexico. .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .postImageUrl , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:hover , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:visited , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:active { border:0!important; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:active , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Legalize marijuana EssayShowing how much more of a man Huerta was than Wilson, Huerta agreed to Wilsonsdemands rather than allowing the war to continue. The results of Wilsonswarmongering were disastrous for Mexico. The Wilson-backed regime who came topower after Huerta stepped down was too weak to hold his country together, andMexico fell into civil war. In a five month period Mexico City changed hands sixtimes. The notorious Mexican bandit Pancho Villa almost got control of Mexico inthe struggle. Eventually the Wilson-backed regime of Venustiano Carranzo emergedon top, but it was too weak to suppress Villa, who led multiple raids into theUnited States. Wilson, ever the m ummer of Mars, used Villas raids into theUnited States to justify savage incursions by the US Army into Mexico, which didlittle more than make Villa a hero to the people of northern Mexico. TheSpanish-American War is often offered up as an example of American imperialism. But Haiti is a much better one. Haiti also vividly illustrates Wilsons truecharacter which he was so effective in hiding from the public. Wilson thoughtFrance and Germany were becoming too influential in Haiti, and for this reasoninvaded that sovereign republic that neither did nor wanted to do any acthostile to the United States. Soon after the marines had secured control ofHaiti, Wilson had a puppet government set up, and forced it to elect PhillippeDartiguenave president. Next, Wilson tired to force his puppets to sign a treatythat would essentially cede Haitian sovereignty to the United States. But thepuppets would not submit, so Wilson declared martial law and made AdmiralCaperton the absolute dictator over all of Haiti. Wilson again tried to forcethe Haitian government to submit to the same humiliating treaty by withholdingthe salaries of all government employees until they complied. They finally gavein. Wilson then held a show election for a constitutional assembly. When theas sembly met, Wilson simply had his military commanders order the delegates toratify his own constitution. They bravely refused, and are heroes as much asthose who took the Tennis Court Oath more than a century earlier; but theAmerican general in command, General Cole, dissolved the assembly, and decidedto hold a referendum on it. It was absurd, a type of election that Stalin wouldhave approved of, with armed soldiers at every polling place, making sure everyHaitian that might try to vote against the American imposed constitution saw theerror of his decision. So much for Wilson the lover of democracy. AfterwardsHaiti became an dictatorship under the American military. The corvee was soonrevived, and slavery returned to our Hemisphere. The American militarycommanders used Haitian slave labor mainly to build roads, which would allowthem to quickly move troops to suppress any resistance to American rule. Duringa revolt against the American system of forced labor and military occupation,t he Marine Corps reports it killed 3250 Haitians(History of Haiti). PresidentWilson in 1916 established a military dictatorship over the Dominican Republic. Wilson also had the marines occupy and subdue large part of Nicaragua at thatgovernments request. President Woodrow Wilson has been marked for his greatissue of foreign poilicy. Latin America was effected greatly by all the policiesthat were promoted by President Wilson. Although some of his ideas were denied,such as the League of Nations, his effort to unite the nations has made a bigimpact on American and Latin American history. Woodrow Wilson is the presidentwith the greatest intervention in Latin America.

Rape in Ancient Societies

Rape in Ancient Societies Introduction One way to understand the view of ancient men is to rely on the insights provided by a gifted writer. Shakespeare is still relevant in the 21st century as he was during his time because of his ability to penetrate human nature. He does not only understand human nature but he is also a master when it comes to explaining it in terms and images readily understood by common men.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Rape in Ancient Societies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Shakespeare has another talent and it is his ability to look into ancient history and draw inspiration from there. One of his important works that relates to this topic is the play entitled The Rape of Lucrece. In this play Shakespeare sheds light on the mentality of the rapist and victim in ancient times. The most poignant part of the play is when Lucrece, after securing an oath from husband and father to avenge the wrong done to her, committed suicide.[1] This is an important scene because it shows the way society view the victim of the rape. Even if the rapist was the evildoer, the act itself has somehow transferred his wickedness into the victim, forcing her to kill herself. It has to be pointed out that rape is a crime that is difficult to prove. In a time when there were no scientific means to prove sexual assault it is difficult for a woman to build a clear case against a rapist especially if there were no witnesses. Going back to the story of Lucrece, her suicide was necessary to prove to everyone that she did nothing wrong. In the words of one commentary, â€Å"her death is to function as the ultimate sign of her innocence.†[2] Her family believed her story. It was Tarquin who forced her to sin against her body and therefore there was no need to commit suicide. However, her reputation suffers because at the time of the sexual act, although it must be considered rape, she allowed it to happen. Shak espeare wrote this play based on what he knows about ancient societies such as Greece and Rome. Before going any further it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of rape. Jane Gallop, in The Daughter’s of Seduction has this to say: The notions of integrity and closure in the text are like that of virginity in a body. They assume that if one does not respect the boundaries between inside and outside, one is ‘breaking and entering,’ violating a property. As long as the fallacies of integrity and closure are upheld, a desire to penetrate becomes a desire to rape.[3]Advertising Looking for research paper on ancient history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The above statement also reveals an important feature of the act of rape that it begins in the mind. It begins with desire and the rapist is guilty even before he has committed the act. This must serve as a strong deterrent to rape . But the status of women in ancient societies was so low that men can were able to do what they please. Sexual assault was not as clearly defined and many of the guilty were left unpunished. It is now time to examine if the Greeks have a better understanding of the violent nature of rape. Ancient Greece The Greeks are known for their wisdom but even their enlightened rulers and philosopher did not develop laws to protect women from rape and the consequences of rape. They did not create laws that acted as a deterrent to violating the consent of women. They did not create laws to send a message that their society honors women in the same way that it honors the men. There were laws about rape but the focus is to protect the property and the reputation of the husband. Women in ancient Greece did not directly benefit from these laws because these laws are dependent on their relationship to a man. They have to be a wife, daughter, mother, or a palleke, a slave-woman kept for the purpose of bearing children.[4] In other words the crime of rape must be punished to deal with the offense made against husband and father but not to the victim of the said crime. The idea that laws about rape were created for the benefit of men was made clear in the story of Euphiletus trial on the murder of Eratosthenes. Euphiletus said that he knew that Eratosthenes was seducing his wife and when he caught them in the act of adultery he killed him. The plot thickens when Euphiletus found himself on trial for the murder of an adulterer when their law justifies the murder of a person caught seducing a pallake. Euphiletus added that if the law justifies this act then how much more the husbands murderous rage against an adulterer.[5] Euphiletus went on to explain why seduction is more dangerous than rape and he said: The rapist incurs the hatred of his victim, the seducer corrupts the very soul of the woman and gains greater control over her than her husband has. The seducer thus gets the en tire household under his control, making it impossible for the husband to know the father of his wife’s children.[6] Euphiletus made an interesting point with regards to the laws against adultery, rape and seduction. But the importance of his statement is on how it sheds light on the mindset of ancient Greeks when it comes to their women. As one can observe rape was made evil not because it violated the women but because the act can produce unwanted children.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Rape in Ancient Societies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thus, it can be interpreted as an act disadvantageous to the husband and protector of the female victim. For instance, in the case of a rapist attacking a man’s daughter, the rapist must be made to answer for his crime because the moment the daughter conceives after the rape, she would bring dishonor to the family. At the same time it raises a probl em when it comes to the responsibility of taking care of the child. There is no one who can help her raise the child. A rapist caught in the act of raping a man’s mother has to be punished because the act has brought shame to the family. There is also a possibility that the rapist has sired a child and this can be the root cause of a destructive family struggle later on. The same thing can be said about the raping the wife and the pallake. The end-goal is to erase all doubts that the children sired by these women are the legitimate heirs and not sired by a rapist and seducer. It is very clear that although Rome has sophisticated laws to deal with rape and seduction, all of these laws are for the benefit of men. Women are valued primarily as a bearer of children. Thus, their rights do not extend far from how they are perceived by the men in their household. These laws reveal a significantly different mindset when compared to the ideals of human rights and women’s rights in the 21st century. The concept of rape against women follows the same pattern as that of ancient Greece. The following statement clarifies the way sexual offenses were viewed during this time: â€Å"Sexual offenses by men involving women (rape, adultery, seduction, even sexual insults) were offenses against men’s authority over their household members.†[7] In ancient Greece adultery and rape were not clearly distinguished and the punishment was the same most of the time.[8] There is a simple explanation, â€Å"the victim of both crimes was not the person attacked but the man whose house she dwelt.†[9] Aside from the need to protect the family lineage these laws were created to protect the property of the men in a male-dominated society. Ancient Rome When Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates were formulating great ideas, Rome was still an unknown entity in the Western world. However, centuries later when Rome began to consolidate power to become a superpower in Euro pe, not much has change when it comes to how men treated women. According to one commentary: As is often true in patriarchal societies, the roles and identities of women in ancient Rome were generally seen as inseparable from those of the men to whom they were related. Roman women’s lives were expected to make a neat transition from the position of daughter and sister to that of wife and mother.[10]Advertising Looking for research paper on ancient history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A Roman myth called the Rape of the Sabine Women reveals how women are viewed in this ancient society. In the said myth the Romans wanted to form an alliance with a neighboring tribe called the Sabine. But this tribe was clearly not interested with the proposal. Thus, the Romans abducted the daughters of the Sabine people and forced them to be their wives. Technically, they were raped, but the reaction of the women provided a glimpse into their mindset when it comes to the relationship between men and women. In the aftermath of the abduction the Sabine tribe declared war on Rome but their captured daughters pleaded with them and begged â€Å"not to force a choice between their family of birth and their family of marriage.†[11] In this instance, rape became a prelude to marriage demonstrating once again that if the male relatives of the victims of rape are unable to redeem their honor then the woman’s value was lost forever. In this case their value was redeemed by agre eing to be married to their captors. This particular myth was in reference to the early days of Rome. It is important to find out if there was a significant change that occurred when Rome became a Republic. But just the same, the laws against rape were created to protect the honor of the male relatives. As a matter of fact the insult done to the woman is also considered as an insult to the male relative.[12] If the male relatives took matters into their own hand and kill the rapist, the prosecution against them was known to be very lenient.[13] Nevertheless, nothing can be done to restore the victim’s value. The offense of rape was considered a capital charge and therefore the punishment can be death, banishment or diminution of the civil status of the rapist.[14] Everything was done to prove to the world that the family’s honor was redeemed and that the male relative will not lose face in public. But nothing can be done to restore the value of the victim. The idea tha t an unmarried Roman girl has to be chaste has frightening consequences for the rape victim because: â€Å"Chastity was a vital element in the girl’s value for marriage, and if she had been violated before, her future was irrevocably spoiled. It got worse if she conceived during the rape. She lost her value as an object of exchange between families and could redeem herself only by death.[15] It is time to find out if much has change after the passage of thousands of years. It is important to determine if modern societies were able to see the value of women beyond their relationship with a man. Modern Times There is a major difference in the way modern people view rape compared to the mindset of the ancient Greeks and Romans. In the ancient world rape is not just an act committed against a woman, it is an act committed against a woman under the supervision of a male relative. As a result, analysis of Greek and Roman literature will reveal that in their ancient societies adult ery and rape are seen as a similar offense against the head of the household. The modern view of rape is a sexual act committed without a woman’s consent.[16] But ancient Greece and ancient Rome had a different view than modern societies as pointed out by Harris: â€Å"our concept focuses on the absence of the victim’s consent †¦ ancient authors, on the other hand, had very different notions from ours about women’s power and ability to grant consent and were more interested in questions of honor when it came to judging acts of sexual violence.†[17] Although modern societies have a more sophisticated view of rape there are certain things that remained unchanged. Sex crimes still abound today. Rape is still a serious problem in the modern world as it was in ancient times. Rape still devalues women to the point that victims do not report rape to the authorities. A female victim of rape will find her value diminished even to the point that she may find i t hard to find a husband. Society still frowns on the victim even if it is not her fault. The laws of the modern world, however, offer more protection to the women regardless of her status.[18] She does not need the help of a male relative in order to defend her honor in court. Nevertheless, society still views a victim as damaged goods. When comparing ancient and modern societies one can see that the major difference is in the way women had liberated themselves from the clutches of a male-dominated world. Wives and daughters still believe in mutual respect when it comes to their relationship with husbands and fathers but the men can no longer treat them as if they were their property. The change in perception also created unexpected results such as the freedom of women to associate with men. In ancient times certain rules of conduct were in place to protect the honor of the family. The mere suspicion of undesirable behavior between man and woman must be dealt with swiftly either by a forceful dissolution of the relationship or marriage. But in the 21st century women can choose to have relationships with any man they would like. The unintended consequence is the emergence of a new form of rape called date rape. In layman’s terms date rape occurs between two people that are dating.[19] It can also happen between two acquaintances that happened to meet in a party.[20] The act is technically rape but the major difference is that the male perpetrator is known to the female victim. Rape can occur by the use of violence or by drugs.[21] The rapist can put a drug into a girl’s drink and when she passes out he takes advantage of her. It is also important to point out that date rape or simply rape can be the culmination of a series of violent acts. In other words the man can abuse the woman until the violence ends up in rape. It is of crucial importance to discuss date rape in the examination of the evolution of rape from ancient times to the present. Dat e rape is a remote possibility in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. The reported cases of violence committed by boyfriends against their girlfriends can only occur in the present time. Violent men and sex predators are dealt with swiftly and decisively in ancient Greece and Rome. The swift resolution of the problem is based on the fact that men are responsible for the women under their care. They will not allow stranger and other men to even come close to their daughters and wives if they are not assured of their true intentions. Much has been said about the abuses committed in a patriarchal society. There is no need to elaborate the fact that laws must cater to both men and women. However, something has to be done to develop a strong bond between families. It is not wise and practical to go back to ancient practices but one thing has to be made clear, they know how to protect their women. Today, sexual violence is on the rise and women are left to fend for themselves. Conclusion The re is not much difference between ancient Greece and ancient Rome when it comes to the way they deal with rape. Their laws were specifically designed to protect the honor and the property of the male relative. Rape, adultery, and seduction are all the same when the act is committed by someone who is not related to the female. In modern times women are no longer treated like property by their husbands and fathers. Women are free to mingle with other men. But this new found freedom has created a weakness that sex predators and unscrupulous men are willing to exploit. Something has to be done to strengthen the bond between family members without recreating the social structures of a male-dominated society. Bibliography Edwards, Catharine. Death in Ancient Rome. MA: Yale University Press, 2007. Gagarin, Michael and Elaine Fantham. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece  and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Harris, Edward. Democracy and the Rule of Law in Classical Ath ens. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Harris, Edward. â€Å"Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds.† Diotima. Last modified 2007. Larmour, David. Rethinking Sexuality: Focault and Classical Antiquity. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998. Orr, Tamara. Frequently Asked Questions about Date Rape. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007. Parrot, Andrea. Coping with Date Rape and Acquaintance Rape. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1999. Quay, Sara. â€Å"Lucrece the Chaste: The Construction of Rape in Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece.† Modern Language Studies 25, no. 2 (1995): 3-17. Schnabel, Stephanie. The Theme of Rape in Elizabethan and Jacobean Literary  Text. Berlin: Verlag, 2006. Wilkins, Jessica. Date Rape. New York: Crabtree Publishing, 2011. Footnotes Sara Quay, â€Å"Lucrece the Chaste: The Construction of Rape in Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece,† Modern Language Studies 25, no. 2 (1995): 3 Catharine Edwards, Death in Ancient Rome (MA: Yale University Press, 2007), 181. Quay, 3. Harris 286. Ibid. Edward Harris, Democracy and the Rule of Law in Classical Athens (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 284. David Larmour, Rethinking Sexuality: Focault and Classical Antiquity (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 132. Ibid. Ibid. Michael Gagarin and Elaine Fantham,The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and  Rome (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 249. Ibid. Stephanie Schnabel, The Theme of Rape in Elizabethan and Jacobean Literary Text  (Berlin: Verlag, 2006), 10. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Edward Harris, â€Å"Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds.†Ã‚  Diotima. Last modified 2007. Ibid. Ibid. Jessica Wilkins, Date Rape (New York: Crabtree Publishing, 2011), 7. Tamra Orr, Frequently Asked Questions about Date Rape (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007), 23. Andrea Parrot, Coping with Date Rape and Acquaintance Rape ( New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1999), 49

What Caused the Civil War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What Caused the Civil War - Essay Example The technological changes in the mid-19th century were extensive. To being with, agricultural, long a staple of the South, and an important livelihood in a country that had not yet rapidly urbanized, was hugely important. The steel plow and the mechanical reaper were invented in this period and allowed for farmers to spend less energy harvesting and to produce greater yields (Boyer, et al, 238). New irrigation techniques also provided more arable land. An additional technological change that had a big impact was the rise of railroads (Boyer, et al, 240). Rail coverage expanded nearly ten times over a twenty year period. Americans of all classes were able to travel freely and comfortably. Perhaps more than anything this helped to open up the West during this period. Culture was rapidly increasing during this period too, as American writers looked inward to their soul and outward to their growing country. Writers like Dickinson, Thoreau and Emerson published works that began the process of defining what it meant to be American. A definition that would be sorely tested during the Civil War. The president at the time, Abraham Lincoln was a very principled and serious lawyer who cared a lot about his country. He fought against politicians who were pro-slavery, but he was conflicted about what the solution to this terrible problem. When he became president at first he didn’t believe the solution was to free all the slaves, nor did he think this was the most important issue in the Civil War between North and South. He saw too many shades of grey. But as the war progressed, he began to see that slavery was the main issue and he would have to do something about it. Slavery was an important issue, but one thing that Lincoln didnt understand was how technology was changing things dramatically. One of the great consequences of technology was that it allowed the war to be that much more vicious and to kill many more people than expected. This

Intertextuality in Contemporary Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Intertextuality in Contemporary Writing - Essay Example However, it must first be questioned whether or not sharing a general plot makes stories similar, or if it is the unique creation of that story which is valued above all others. The concept of intertextuality is not new. Intertextuality is defined as "Intertextuality is the shaping of texts' meanings by other texts. It can refer to an author's borrowing and transformation of a prior text or to a reader's referencing of one text in reading another" (Wikipedia). Another, more clear and accepted definition describes intertextuality as Texts, whether they be literary or non-literary are viewed by modern theorists as lacking in any kind of independent meaning. They are what theorists now call intertextual. The act of reading, theorists claim, plunges us into a network of textual relations. To interpret a text, to discover its meaning or meanings is to trace those relations. Reading thus becomes a process of moving between texts. Meaning becomes something that exists between a text and all other texts to which it refers to and relates, moving out from the independent text into a network of textual relations. (Hansen, Intertextuality) Even the word draws from other sources, having been changed and developed to its' current meaning. Yet intertextuality is more than just the influences that other writers and texts have upon the text in question. It affects the subject of the piece, the style of the writing, even the word choice made. It is semiotics to every detail, and intertextuality suggests that there is actually nothing new in a new text, that all ideas have been borrowed or influenced by other writers and texts. To suggest that all writing is a form of plagiarism is an interesting concept, and yet holds quite a bit of validity. Even now, in this essay, the ideas have been written before. The form has been written before. Other authors have expounded on the concept of intersexuality. If all essays were compared, chances are there would be little that was not found in at least two essays. If not even an essay can be unique, then how can a novel, or a play Yet, at the same time, how can they not be unique An excellent example of this is Carpentier's essay, "Like the Night." Clearly, the concept of looking at how a soldier feels about war is not unique in and of itself. Look at contemporary classics, such as The Things They Carried. Like "Like the Night" the story focuses on the tales of men at war, and their thoughts and feelings about what is happening around them. Yet, while they each share unique thoughts and ideas, would they not both be strengthened by reading both texts They are a part of the intertextual network that Hansen described. Another piece that deserves notice is Barth's "Dunyazadiad." This piece clearly draws on other works and ideas, as it is not a story meant to stand alone, but rather a remake of an already written story. His story not only connects to other stories on an idea basis but also embellishes and changes a story that already had meaning and idea. There are deeper concepts in this story then, since it adds yet another layer to the original story, bringing the meanings written by that author, and by Barth. Clearly, this piece cannot stand by itself, since it would lose so much. So, the answer to the question â€Å"The concept of intertextuality reminds us that each text exists in relation to others.     Ã‚  

The Reproductive Health Bill

The Reproductive Health Bill Public opinion is the aggregate of individual dispositions and beliefs with regards to important issues. Public opinion holds great importance in democracies because a democracy, by its very definition, connotes a form of government that is responsive to the people. Democracy is most often defined as a set of procedures and institutions intended to make the holders of political power directly responsible to the electorates. The quality of democratic government is measured by the responsiveness of public policymakers to the preferences of the mass public. For that reason, public opinion will always play an important role in policy-making process in the Philippines, a democratic country. Views and opinions of the general public should be taken into consideration in formulating, passing and implementing a policy. Hence, stakeholders and interests groups roles are very vital in affecting policy outcomes since stakeholders and interest groups are the means through which public opinion is brought in the Halls of the Congress. In view of this, the government is faced with the need to balance the conflicting views of different stakeholders, interest and pressure groups in the decision-making process. This is clearly exemplified in the controversial Reproductive Health bill. This paper studies the different stakeholders involved in the Reproductive Health Bill and the degree in which they affect policy outcome based on the resources and resource mobilization capacities they have. The first part of this paper includes definition and the presentation of health and population situation in the Philippines. The second part focuses with the provisions, debates and proponent of RH bill. The third part provides an analysis of the different stakeholders and resources and resource mobilization capacity that they have. Lastly, the examination of how these stakeholders and interest groups can actually affect policy outcome and the degree on which they affect it. The controversy of RH bill led to many implications. Reproductive health is now a byword that enthralled the public attention. Therefore, there is a need to define the term based on a standard definition. Reproductive health addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system at all stages of life. Reproductive health implies that people are able to have a responsible, satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so (World Health Organization). Although this appears to be the only definition of the term in any international document, the definition implicitly implies that reproductive health includes the right of men and women to be informed of and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of fertility regulation of their choice, and the right of access to appropriate health care services that will enable women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant (International Conference on Population and Development, 1994). Of the eight Millennium Development Goals, achieving universal access to reproductive health by 2015 is one of the two targets of Goal 5, Improving Maternal Health. Due to this, a comprehensive study of the reproductive health in the Philippines is greatly needed and in turn, to develop and actually implement a policy that will give Filipinos equal chances to the right to reproductive health and develop programs that will seek to address problems related to reproductive health in the country. Over the past 30 years, developing countries population have rise up almost twice the rate of those in the developed and advanced countries. As an effect, a number of people have caught up with high infant mortality, low life expectancy, disease, malnutrition and illiteracy. Rapid population growth causes difficulties in managing economic and social changes, including the balancing of the fruits of economic development efforts (Leverage International, 2011). Governments of the Third World countries and as well as of those developed nations recognized that the measurement of economic development is not based only on economic indicators such as income distribution but also by the quality of life of its people (Leverage International, 2011). Philippines, as a developing country, experiences rapid population growth. According to the 2007 Census by the National Statistics Office (NSO), the Philippine population was 88.57 million and the estimated population as of 2010 is 94.3 million and this made the country as the 12th most populous country in the world. This high population results to high infant mortality rate which is 19.94% in 2010. In addition to this, the lifetime risk of maternal death in the Philippines is 1 in every 140, according to United Nations International Children Emergency Funds State of the Worlds Children 2009 report. Each day, about 11 Filipino mothers or 4,500 each year die because of hypertensive disorders, severe hemorrhage or other labor- or abortion-related problems. The country is also part of a group of 68 countries where 97% of worldwide maternal, neonatal and child health deaths occur. Moreover, the county is witnessing the fastest spread of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in its history. Five new HIV cases are recorded everyday according to the National Epidemiology Center of the Department of Health. High infant mortality rate, high maternal mortality rate and a number of HIV cases are not the only problems that the Philippines is experiencing in relation to reproductive health. Because of the lack of a concrete reproductive health and family planning policy and program in the country, unwanted pregnancy incidences become high. Due to this, Filipino women are forced to undergo induced abortion as one of the methods that they use to meet their reproductive goals. Although abortion is illegal in the Philippines, and despite the potential harmful consequences of an unsafe abortion for womens health and life, many women resort to abortion to meet their family-size goals or to space births (The Guttmacher Institute, 2003). The Incidence of Induced Abortion in the Philippines: Current Level and Recent Trends (2005), a study conducted by Fatima Juarez, Josefina Cabigon, Susheela Singh, and Rubina Hussain for the Guttmacher Institute revealed the following: Six in 10 Filipino women say they have experienced an unintended pregnancy at some point in their lives. About 1.43 million pregnancies each yearnearly half of all pregnancies in the Philippinesare unintended. Some 54% of women who have ended an unintended pregnancy by abortion were not using any family planning method when they conceived. Of those who were practicing contraception, three-fourths were using a traditional method. The average Filipino woman wants 2.5 children. In order to achieve that goal, she must spend more than 19 years using effective contraceptive methods. However, nearly half of all married women of reproductive age have an unmet need for effective contraceptionthat is, they are sexually active, are able to have children, do not want a child soon or ever, but are not using any form of contraception or are using traditional methods, which have high failure rates. Aside from induced abortion that can lead to deaths, other problem due to the lack of reproductive health policy is the risk of acquiring cervical cancer. The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is a sexually-transmitted, wart-forming virus that has been implicated in causing cancer of the cervix. This is the most common cancer in women secondary to breast cancer (Department of Health, 2008). Due to these findings and other statistics such as high infant and mortality rates, these imply that there is an immense need for a policy to ensure the right to reproductive health in the Philippines. Although reproductive health has long been considered a basic universal human right, this right remains elusive and illusory for millions of Filipinos, especially the poor. The first comprehensive version of reproductive health bill, House Bill 8110 or The Integrated Population and Development Act of 1999 was filed in the 11th Congress. Twelve years after, the country still does not have a reproductive health policy and the issue of the current reproductive health bills remains a heated and controversial issue as the first RH bill. Today, the struggle of RH advocates still continues for the passage of a comprehensive reproductive health bill. House Bill 4244 or The Responsible Parenthood, Reproductive Health and Population and Development Act of 2011 is the most recent version of a reproductive health bill that was filed in the 15th Congress. H.B. 4244 is popularly known as the consolidated RH bill in substitution to the other reproductive health bills that are pending in the Congress. The other reproductive health bills are as follows: House Bill 96 (Rep. Edcel Lagman) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health, Responsible Parenthood and Population Development and for Other Purposes House Bill 101 (Rep. Janette Garin) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health and Population Development and for Other Purposes House Bill 513 (Reps. Kaka Bag-ao and Warden Bello of Akbayan Partylist) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health and Population and Development and for Other Purposes House Bill 1160 (Rep. Rodolfo Biazon) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health and for Other Purposes House Bill 1520 (Rep. Judy Syjuco) An Act to Protect the Right of the People to Information on Reproductive Health Care House Bill 3368 (Rep. Luzviminda Ilagan and Emmi de Jesus of Gabriela Womens Party) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health for Women and Development and for Other Purposes H.B 4244s objectives are as follows: To uphold and promote respect for life, informed choice, birth spacing and responsible parenthood in conformity with internationally recognized human rights standards. To guarantee universal access to medically-safe, legal and quality reproductive health care services and relevant information even as it prioritizes the needs of women and children. To realize these goals, the consolidated RH Bill has the following key provisions: Mandates the Department of Health (DOH) and Local Health Units in cities and municipalities shall serve as the lead agencies for the implementation of this act. Mandates the Population Commission, to be an attached agency of the Department of Health, shall serve as a coordinating body in the implementation of this Act. Provides for the creation of an enabling environment for women and couples to make an informed choice regarding the family planning method that is best suited to their needs and personal convictions. The LGUs and the DOH shall ensure that a Minimum Initial Service Package (MISP) for reproductive health, including maternal and neonatal health care kits and services will be given proper attention in crisis situations such as disasters and humanitarian crises. Provides for a maternal death review in LGUs, national and local government hospitals and other public health units to decrease the incidence of maternal deaths. Products and supplies for modern family planning methods shall be part of the National Drug Formulary and the same shall be included in the regular purchase of essential medicines and supplies of all national and local hospitals and other government health units. Ensures the availability of hospital-based family planning methods such as tubal ligation, vasectomy and intrauterine device insertion in all national and local government hospitals, except in specialty hospitals. Provides for a Mobile Health Care Service in every Congressional District to deliver health care goods and services. Provides Mandatory Age-appropriate Reproductive Health Education starting from Grade 5 to Fourth Year High School to develop the youth into responsible adults. The Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) shall ensure that employees respect the reproductive health rights of workers. Mandates private and nongovernment reproductive health care service providers to provide at least forty-eight (48) hours annually of reproductive health services free of charge to indigent and low income patients, especially to pregnant adolescents. Mandates cities and municipalities to provide sexual and reproductive health programs for persons with disabilities (PWDs). Mandates the inclusion of the topics on responsible parenthood, family planning, breastfeeding and infant nutrition as essential part of the information given by local Family Planning office to all applicants for marriage license. Mandates no less than 10% increase in the honoraria of community-based volunteer workers, such as the barangay health workers, upon successful completion of training on the delivery of reproductive health care services. Creation of Congressional Oversight Committee (COC) which shall be composed of five (5) members each from the Senate and from the House of Representatives which shall monitor and ensure the effective implementation of this Act, determine the inherent weakness and loopholes in the law, recommend the necessary remedial legislation or administrative measures and perform such other duties and functions as may be necessary to attain the objectives of this Act. Penalizes the violator of this Act from one month to six months imprisonment or a fine ranging from ten thousand to fifty thousand pesos or both such fine and imprisonment at the discretion of the Court. H.B 4244 covers all other six pending RH bills in the Congress but despite the clear purpose of the bill, the enactment of RH bill is long overdue. On the other hand, RH bill advocates see the passage of the consolidated RH bill in the 15th Congress since it was already approved by the House Committee on Population and Family Relations last February 1 and it was also approved by the Committee on Appropriations with a vote of 20-3. Last March 8 which is incidentally the International Womens Day, RH bill reached the plenary. Biliran Representative Rogelio Espina, chairman of the Committee on Population and Family Relations, delivered his sponsorship speech on Committee Report 664. Three of the six sponsors of the bill also delivered speeches urging for its passage Minority Leader and Albay Representative Edcel Lagman, Gabriela partylist Representative Luz Ilagan and Akbayan partylist Representative Arlene Kaka Bag-ao. Meanwhile, President Benigno Aquino III ordered Health Secreaty Enrique Ona to draft the Responsible Parenthood Bill that would perhaps serve as a middle ground between RH advocates and the Church. Moreover, the President did also not include RH bill as part of his list of policy priorities after the Church issued a pastoral letter entitled Choosing Life, Rejecting RH Bill. Though Rep. Lagman believes that the Malacaà ±ang-sponsored version of the RH bill would not be able take the place of a more comprehensive RH bill since it is limited to the issue of family planning and responsible parenthood. Moreover, Health Secretary Ona is a known advocate of reproductive health and family planning. His public pronouncements have confirmed that he, like his predecessor Sec. Espie Cabral, is unwavering in his belief that RH is a basic human right. Because of this, Cong. Lagman believes that the crafting of the Responsible Parenthood bill would and should not delay the passage of the consolida ted RH bill. Cong. Edcel Lagman of the First District of Albay is the principal author of the consolidated RH bill. According to him, the incidences of infant and maternal mortality in his own district are within the range of the national average. As a solution, they have set up lying-in clinics and birthing centers in the upland and island barangays of the first district of Albay so as to ensure that mothers in far flung barangays can be given emergency and basic obstetric care. However, the problem of maternal and infant mortality and morbidity goes beyond the First District of Albay. The preventable deaths of mothers and children happen on a national scale so the need to formulate a national policy on reproductive health is imperative. Although he is a Catholic he believes that like many other Catholics in the country, they can be good Catholics and still support a measure like RH bill that puts a premium on quality of life and the protection and fulfilment of the basic human rights to reproductive health and sustainable human development. He also noted that the word catholic when used as an adjective means all-embracing, forward-looking and liberal. The antonym of catholic is conservative, narrow-minded and intolerant. That is why it is very ironic that the Catholic Church particularly the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) strongly opposes RH bill. Rep. Lagman is also the newly-elect chair of one of the ruling party in the country, the Lakas Kampi Catholic Muslim Democrats (CMD). However, because of the nature of the party system in the Philippines, this position in his party would not guarantee the passage of RH bill. According to him, his colleagues are free to support or oppose an issue as they see fit. Members of his party are not required to vote for or support RH bill. It is interesting to note that the former President and the incumbent representative of the second district of Pampanga, Rep. Gloria Arroyo, who is a member of the Lakas Kampi CMD is known to be a critic of RH bill. In line with this, the conflicting views on RH bill do not only occur inside Congress. Central to the issue of RH bill is the political dynamics of the numerous actors involved in affecting the passage of the said bill. The different stakeholders and interest groups play important roles in the deliberation of the policy. This put the challenge to the legislators to balance and to be able to reconcile the conflicting views of these stakeholders and interest groups. But how did citizens start to participate in the decision-making process? Due to influx of information, there came a higher level of consciousness among citizens. Peoples desire to participate in decision-making process amplified. People demand more of representation and participation in the government. In less complex times, elected representation was a sufficient means for most citizens to participate in government. Recently, for a number of reasons, including the diversity of citizens cultural heritage, needs, values, and interests, that has been changing and of course, the changes brought about by modernization, there is now a strong desire for citizens to be involved broadly in governance and directly in policy decisions. Governments, especially in developing countries, are very vulnerable and they are being assessed based on their economic and political performance. And one of the bases of a governments political performance is its capacity to provide venues for peoples participation and involvement. Hence, views and opinions of the general public should be taken into consideration in formulating, passing and implementing a policy. For this reason, one of the biggest challenges which government faces is the need to balance the conflicting views of different interest groups in a particular policy. This problem is very much observed in the issue of coming up with a reproductive health policy in the Philippines. Conflicting views and opinions from numerous actors and stakeholders in the reproductive health bill have always marred the passage of the said bill. Certain sectors and segments of the population will definitely be affected upon the implementation of the said policy and they also have different views regarding the passage of RH bill. However, the stakeholders who have the resources to influence or actually determine the success or failure of the reproductive health bill are the Roman Catholic Church, the women sector and pharmaceutical companies in the country. The table below shows an analysis of the four primary stakeholders in the RH bill. From the stakeholders listed above, the Catholic Church and organized women groups are the primary actors in the debate in adopting a reproductive health policy in the country because they are the most visible in terms of their campaign for or against the said policy. The Catholic Church is the main critic of the reproductive health bill because it argues that the policy is anti-life because it promotes the use of modern contraception measures. Also, it argues that RH bill does not really address poverty. In the researchers interview with Archbishop Oscar V. Cruz and Carmelo Cruz, Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) News Editor, they said that the Catholic Churchs judgment in the political performance of former President Ferdinand Marcos that significantly contribute for making EDSA People Power I happened in 1986 is the same as their opposition to the six pending reproductive health bills in the Congress. Their opposition to the immoral regime of Pres. Marcos is the same as their opposition to an immoral policy, the reproductive health bill. (This was also written in CBCPs Pastoral Letter entitled Choosing Life, Rejecting RH bill issued last January 30, 2011.) Moreover, they believe that it is not the poor Filipino people who will benefit from the implementation of the reproductive health bill but the foreign owners of transnational pharmaceutical companies who will supply modern contraceptives. They also believe that if a reproductive health bill will be enacted into law, it will paved the way for the introduction and passage of other policies such as policies on divorce, mercy killing and same sex marriage. The Catholic Church believes that the passage of a reproductive health bill will deteriorate the authentic human values and as well as the Filipino cultural values in accordance to the teachings of the Church. Archbishop Oscar V. Cruz said that although reproductive health bill can lessen infant and maternal mortality, he argued that the reason behind infant and maternal mortality and morbidity is poverty and inaccessible to basic health care services. According to him, health care services are inaccessible to poor families because of bad governance and corruption, services are not delivered to poor communities because public official corrupt the money that is intended for communities welfare. For these reasons, the solution to infant and maternal mortality in the country is not the reproductive health bill, the solution needs to focus to the root causes of the problem which is bad governance and poverty. However, the Catholic hierarchy said that is not against the elimination of violence against women, the treatment of breast cancer, maternal and child health and nutrition and other elements of RH. It is only against making modern family planning methods available to women and couples and the teaching of sexuality and RH education to the youth. The Church believes that RH bill would violate the teachings of the Church specifically the 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae which is the basis of the Church teaching that contraceptives are intrinsically evil. The Church has been firm in its stand against RH bill. The Church is having dialogues to the current administration to turn down RH bills that are pending in Congress. Moreover, the Church through its archdioceses and dioceses consults representatives from each district for them to be convinced not to vote for RH bill. Also, the CBCP issues statements to inform the public why RH bill should not be enacted into law. And what is more important is the impact of the Catholic Church in shaping or influencing public opinion since majority of Filipinos are Catholics. Some officials are threatened that their stand regarding the issue on RH bill might affect their political careers. Because of the strong opposition of the Catholic Church to adopt a reproductive health policy in the country and the resources it has to affect the decisions of public officials, the passage of the bill becomes impossible despite the need for a reproductive health policy in the country. Last January 30, CBCP issued a pastoral letter against RH bill. As an effect, the President did not include RH bill from among the Legislative Executive Development Advisory Councils policy measures that probably would unduly delay again the passage of RH bill. If the Catholic Church strongly oppose RH bill, organized womens groups tell the other side of the story. Womens organizations such as Gabriela Womens Party and Likhaan Center for Womens Health Inc. stalwartly campaign for the passage of RH bill. These RH advocate groups believe that the rights of people to reproductive health do not depend on a few powerful men deciding the fate of women (Likhaan, 2011). In the explanatory note of House Bill 3368 introduced by Gabriela Womens Party, it states that Filipino women do not have to die at childbirth just because they are poor, they do not have to suffer from undiagnosed cervical, breast, vulvar, ovarian or similar cancers of the reproductive system just because they do not have access to adequately staffed and equipped public health facilities Women do not have to suffer from untreated uterine fibroid or such similar conditions just because diagnostic procedures are costly, women should not die at childbirth because their infants need th em for optimum care, love and affection if children are to grow up to realize their full potential as productive and responsible members of our society. Due to these reasons, access to reproductive health programs, resources and services for marginalized women needs to be guaranteed by the government. A national reproductive health policy is seen to offer health care services that will basically benefit women, especially the marginalized. Advancing reproductive health rights in a comprehensive, available, accessible, acceptable, and democratic manner is a long overdue mandate of the Philippine government to its female population given the social and economic realities in the country. Hence, the approval of legislators to pass RH bill is indispensable (Likhaan, 2011). According to Junice Demeterio-Melgar, the executive director of Likhaan and Secretary-General of Reproductive Health Advocacy Network (RHAN), family planning will save the lives of mothers because family planning changes the composition of child-bearing. This means that pregnancies in women who are considered at a higher risk of dying from pregnancy and childbirth-related causes will be dramatically reduced. These are women who are too young, too old, have had too many children or have had unremitting pregnancies. Medical experts have stated that pregnancy in women below 18 or above 35 is considered high risk. They have also emphasized that womens bodies need anywhere from two to three years to fully recover from the rigors of pregnancy and childbirth. Moreover, the World Health Organization concludes that if women have information and access to contraceptives and are taught to use them properly, the fall in maternal mortality is likely to be even greater than the fall in the pregnancy rate. With their struggle for the passage of RH bill, womens groups tied up with other RH advocates to pressure legislators to pass RH bill. Reproductive Health Advocacy Network (RHAN), which has forty-three (43) national organizations with no less than 10,000 members in grassroots communities nationwide, continues to have dialogues with the President and with their recent dialogue, RHAN reminded the President about his Social Contract, which included a commitment to responsible parenthood based on informed choice and support to poor families. RHAN, specifically Likhaan, is disappointed with the Presidents decision to resort to a Responsible Parenthood Bill instead of a more comprehensive RH bill. According to them, further dialogues of the President to CBCP will trap his administration into delay and inaction, or push it to drop the freedom of choice principle in the Presidents promise of responsible parenthood since the Church will always disagree to any RH bill because its opposition to RH is based on the core principle of human life, it is clear that immovable religious beliefs are the bedrock of the bishops opposition to RH as pointed out by the recent CBCPs pastoral letter. Further dialogues or consultations will never change the stance of the Catholic Church. Aside from dialogues, advocates continue to hold fora and debates on the issues of RH and human development from schools and universities to service clubs and community-based organizations. In addition, they hold mobilizations and rallies in front of Congress to pressure legislators to enact the said bill. Both stakeholders prove to be significant and effective in their campaign for or against RH bill. However, the Church as an established and one of the most powerful institutions in the country which affect public opinion has an advantage in affecting the outcome of the said policy. However, RH advocates do not only have the superiority of numbers but they also have the superiority of arguments. Although the Church has the capacity to influence or even shape public opinion, perhaps the case on the debate on RH bill is isolated. Recent survey results show that majority of Filipino and Filipino Catholics support RH bill. Although the RH critics say that people are only misinformed about the content of the measure, advocates say that the capacity of Filipinos to understand an issue like RH, responsible parenthood and population and development should not be underestimated. People support the RH bill because they realize how important it is to become a responsible parent. Filipinos also believe that is not only important for them to be able to plan and space their children, it is equally important that the State provide information on and access to all forms of family planning methods. The following data are results of SWS and Pulse Asia surveys: Social Weather Station (October 2008) 71% of Filipinos are in favor of the RH bill; 76% of Filipinos agree that there should be a law requiring government to teach family planning to the youth; and 68% believe that there should be a law requiring government to distribute legal contraceptives like condoms, pills and IUDs Pulse Asia (February 2010) 93% of Filipinos consider it important to have the ability to plan their families; 82% of Filipinos believe government should teach couples about all methods of family planning; Another 82% of Filipinos say that it is the governments duty to provide the people with knowledge, services, and materials on all methods of family planning; 75% of Filipinos consider it important that a candidate for election includes modern family planning in the program of action he will pursue; 64% of Filipinos will vote for candidates who publicly promote modern methods of family planning with only 6% saying that they will not vote for such candidates. The rest were undecided; and A considerable majority of Filipinos (63%) want the RH bill to be passed into law with only 8% expressing opposition to the measure. Even Catholics have spoken: They want the RH bill passed. 68% of Catholics believe that government