Woodrow Wilson (2460 words) Essay Example For Students

Woodrow Wilson (2460 words) Essay Woodrow WilsonPresident Woodrow Wilson regarded himself as the personal representative of thepeople. No one but the President, he said, seems to beexpected to look out for the general interests of the country(Internet1). He developed a program of progressive reform and asserted internationalleadership in building a new world order. In 1917 he proclaimed Americansentrance into World War I a crusade to make the world safe fordemocracy. Wilson had seen the difficulties of war. He was born inVirginia in 1856. The son of a Presbyterian minister who during the Civil Warwas a pastor in Augusta, Georgia, and during Reconstruction a professor in thecharred city of Columbia, South Carolina. After graduation from Princeton (thenthe College of New Jersey) and the University of Virginia Law School, Wilsonearned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University and entered upon an academiccareer. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson. Wilson advanced rapidly as aconservative young professor of political science and became president ofPrinceton in 1902. His growing national reputation led some conservativeDemocrats to consider him Presidential material. First they persuaded him to runfor Governor of New Jersey in 1910. In that campaign he asserted hisindependence of the conservatives and of the machine that had nominated him,endorsing a progressive platform, which he pursued as governor. He was nominatedfor President at the 1912 Democratic Convention and campaigned on a programcalled the New Freedom, which stressed individualism and states rights. In thethree-way election he received only 42 percent of the popular vote but anoverwhelming electoral vote. Wilson dealt with Congress very effectively in hispresidency. On April 2,1917, he asked Congress for a declaration of war onGermany. Massive American effort slowly tipped the balance in favor of theAllies. Wilson went before Congress in January 1918, to pronounce American waraims through a a series of ideas he had known as the Fourte en Points, this wouldestablish a general association of nations indubitably guaranteeing politicalindependence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. Afterthe Germans signed the Armistice in November 1918, Wilson went to Paris to tryto build an enduring peace. He later presented to the Senate the VersaillesTreaty, containing the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Versailles Treatywas seven votes shy of being ratifid by the senate. The President, against thewarnings of his doctors, had made a national tour to mobilize public sentimentfor the treaty. President Wilson had aswell have many interventions in countriessuch as: New Mexico, Mexico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua Exhausted,he suffered a stroke and nearly died. Tenderly nursed by his second wife, EdithBolling Galt, he lived until 1924. The League of Nations was a formerinternational organization that was formed after WORLD WAR I to promoteinternational peace and security. The League of Nations was provided int he useof the Fourteen Points. The basis of the League, the Covenant, was written intothe Treaty of Versailles and other peace treaties and provided for an assembly,a council, and a secretariat. A system of colonial mandates was also set up. TheU.S., which failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, never became a member. We will write a custom essay on Woodrow Wilson (2460 words) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Based in Geneva, the League proved useful in settling minor internationaldisputes, but was unable to stop aggression by major powers, Japans occupationof Manchuria (1931), Italys conquest of Ethiopia (1935-36), and Germanysseizure of Austria (1938). It collapsed early in World War II and dissolveditself in 1946. The League established the first pattern of permanentinternational organization and served as a model for its successor, the UNITEDNATIONS. The Treaty of Versailles, signed on 1871 at the end of theFranco-Prussian War by Bismarck. France was forced to give up most of Alsace andLorraine, pay a large indemnity, and accept a German army of occupation. TheVersailles Treaty of 1919 is the most famous of the treaties because it was thechief one ending World War I. The Big Four negotiating it were President WIlson,Premier Clemenceau, Prime Minister Llyod George, and Premier Oralndo. The treatycalled for the creation of the League of Nations. It forced on Germany theburden of reperat ions and placed limits on German armed forces. It restoredAlsace and Lorraine to France, gave Prussian Poland and most of West Prussia toPoland, made Danzig a free city, put Germanys colonies under the League ofNations, placed the Saar under French administration, called for plebiscites invarious territories newly freed from the Central Powers, mand called for thedemilitarization of the Rhineland. American opposition to the League of Nationsresulted in the refusal of the U.S. Senate to ratify the treaty. In 1935, AdolfHitler unilaterally abrogated most of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. TheTreaty of Paris was one of the most important treaties signed at or near Paris. The Treaty of 1763 was signed by Great Britain, France, and Spain. Together withthe Treaty of Hubertusburg it ended the Seven Years War. France lostCanada to Britain, Cuba and the Philippines were restored to Spain, and India ineffect passed to Britain(Internet 2). From this treaty dated the colonialand maritime supremacy of Britain. In the Treaty of 1783 Great Britain formallyacknowledged the independence of the Thirteen Colonies as the U.S. The treatyalso fixed the boundaries of the new nation. In addition, the warring Europeanpowers-Britain against France and Spain, with the Dutch as armedneutrals-effected a large-scale peace settlement. Spain reacquired the Floridasand Minorca from Britain, and Britain relinquished its restrictions on theFrench port of Dunkirk. Otherwise, the territorial dispositions of the 1763Treaty of Paris were reaffirmed. The Treaty of 1814 was concluded between Franceon the one hand and Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia on the other after thefirst abdic ation of NApoleon I. Its provisions never went into effect owing tothe return of Napoleon from Elba and the resumption of the war. The Treaty of1815 was signed after Napoleons final surrender. Many provisions of the treatyof 1814 and the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna remained binding. France wasreduced to its 1790 borders and was forced to pay 700 million francs inreparations plus the costs of an army of occupation for five years. After WorldWar I severeal treaties were signed (1919-20) in or near Paris, the mostimportant of which was the Treaty of Versailles After World War II separatetreaties were signed (1947) by the Allies at or near Paris with Italy, Romania,Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland. Woodrow Wilson had interventions with NewMexico. President Wilson had two fronts to worry about; Mexico and Europe. Belowhis country, the Mexican Revolution was in full swing. Wilson had made his movesin accordance to what he had felt was best for his country and its people. Thesame wen t for Europe. He was doing all he could do by just keeping the UnitedStates out of the war. However, in relation to Europe and the World War, Wilsonknew that the United States was not going to be able to stay out of the warforever. After all, the Germans were taking a greater toll on the merchant shipsin the Atlantic. To truely see the situation, one must look back at the electionof 1916. Presidents dont win elections by telling the people what they dontwant to hear. Wilson was up for re-election that year. He had been campaigningon the platform of peace. His opponent, Charles Hughes, had favored teh idea ofthe United States getting involved into World War I. Wilson used every politicaltactic he knew to bring Hughes down. Hughes was called the warcandidate(Biography of Woodrow Wilson). Later, Wilson would even use theslogan Wilson and Peace with Honor, or Hughes with Roosevelt andWar?(Internet 1) So Wilson did what he had to do in order to stay inoffice. By 1916, Wilson began to rea lize where his country stood in relation tothose that were fighting. He had been paying attention to the press to see theresults of the events that were unfolding. In particular, the Battle of theSomme struck President Wilson with deep concern. At this battle, the Britishwere on the offensive against the Germans. The British command called for a fiveday assualt with heavy cannon. After the shelling, the soldiers were expected tosimply walk over claim the land. The offensive failed and as a result, theBritish suffered casualties near 70,000 in just a few days time. At that time,the United States military personel numbered less than 150,000. The UnitedStates, at that rate, would have only been able to last for a few days if theyentered the war. This brings us to the main point of this article; Wilson had toget his armed forces up in numbers without breaking his campaign promise to hispeople. How was Wilson suppossed to do this? The answer was Pancho Villa. PanchoVilla was a very predi ctable man. After the events down in Agua Prieta, Villawas on a one course action, death to all Americans. Villa made his first move inJanuary of 1916. Engineers from El Paso were on their way to open up a mine downin Mexico. They had been given assurances that there was nothing to fear. Whileenroute by way of rail, the engineers were stopped and pulled off the train. Allwere put down on their knees and shot in the back of the head. Villa had begunto deliver his promise to the Americans. Wilson was aware of this. All he had todo was to wait for the right moment. Wilsons chance came in early March of1916. Sometime around the 6th of March, U.S. intelligence began to send reportsto Washington that Villa and his men had been seen along the border nearColumbus. These reports would continue up until the 9th of March when Villafinally made his attack. Although history plays the attack as a suprise, eventsleading up to the attack suggest that the U.S. government knew of Villaslocation and i ntentions. Just prior to the attack, Lieutenant George Patton, whowas being stationed at Columbus, was ordered, along with the remaining officers,to leave for a polo match near Deming, New Mexico. Patton would later remark inhis diary that he had never played the sport before. Also, when the attack didoccur, the press made a big deal about the machine guns being still in theirstorage cases. Had Columbus known of Villas location, it would have been likelythat the machine guns would probably had been readied. Throughout hispresidency, Wilson showed a pattern of bullying and deception, and great desireto involve the American people in wars that they had no desire to get into. Thefirst example is Mexico. Wilson had an intense personal hatred of MexicosPresident, General Victotiano Huerta, because he had suppressed a left-wingrevolution. This hatred led Wilson to try to provoke a war with Mexico. He gothis chance when a small number of Americans where arrested in Mexican port ofTampico. Knowing that Wilson was looking for an exuse for war, Huertaimmediately ordered the release of the Americans, and personally apologized tothem for the incident. But Wilson would not let the situation end at that. Hedemanded more apologies, and even worse demanded that some of the Mexicansinvolved salute the American flag! Imagine if you were a soldier in the AmericanArmy and were ordered by a foreign leader to salute a foreign flag. Of coursethe Mexicans refused, so Wilson got his chance to start a war, and launched asurprise attack on the barely defended Mexican city of Vera Cruz. Fortunatelyfor the youth of both countries, Huerta was not as eager for war as Wilson. Sohe got several Latin American governments to intercede. Wilson demanded that anypeace be on the condition of Huerta stepping down as president of Mexico. .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .postImageUrl , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:hover , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:visited , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:active { border:0!important; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:active , .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80 .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uce85e2446a3cf7503e8886f9e24d9a80:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Legalize marijuana EssayShowing how much more of a man Huerta was than Wilson, Huerta agreed to Wilsonsdemands rather than allowing the war to continue. The results of Wilsonswarmongering were disastrous for Mexico. The Wilson-backed regime who came topower after Huerta stepped down was too weak to hold his country together, andMexico fell into civil war. In a five month period Mexico City changed hands sixtimes. The notorious Mexican bandit Pancho Villa almost got control of Mexico inthe struggle. Eventually the Wilson-backed regime of Venustiano Carranzo emergedon top, but it was too weak to suppress Villa, who led multiple raids into theUnited States. Wilson, ever the m ummer of Mars, used Villas raids into theUnited States to justify savage incursions by the US Army into Mexico, which didlittle more than make Villa a hero to the people of northern Mexico. TheSpanish-American War is often offered up as an example of American imperialism. But Haiti is a much better one. Haiti also vividly illustrates Wilsons truecharacter which he was so effective in hiding from the public. Wilson thoughtFrance and Germany were becoming too influential in Haiti, and for this reasoninvaded that sovereign republic that neither did nor wanted to do any acthostile to the United States. Soon after the marines had secured control ofHaiti, Wilson had a puppet government set up, and forced it to elect PhillippeDartiguenave president. Next, Wilson tired to force his puppets to sign a treatythat would essentially cede Haitian sovereignty to the United States. But thepuppets would not submit, so Wilson declared martial law and made AdmiralCaperton the absolute dictator over all of Haiti. Wilson again tried to forcethe Haitian government to submit to the same humiliating treaty by withholdingthe salaries of all government employees until they complied. They finally gavein. Wilson then held a show election for a constitutional assembly. When theas sembly met, Wilson simply had his military commanders order the delegates toratify his own constitution. They bravely refused, and are heroes as much asthose who took the Tennis Court Oath more than a century earlier; but theAmerican general in command, General Cole, dissolved the assembly, and decidedto hold a referendum on it. It was absurd, a type of election that Stalin wouldhave approved of, with armed soldiers at every polling place, making sure everyHaitian that might try to vote against the American imposed constitution saw theerror of his decision. So much for Wilson the lover of democracy. AfterwardsHaiti became an dictatorship under the American military. The corvee was soonrevived, and slavery returned to our Hemisphere. The American militarycommanders used Haitian slave labor mainly to build roads, which would allowthem to quickly move troops to suppress any resistance to American rule. Duringa revolt against the American system of forced labor and military occupation,t he Marine Corps reports it killed 3250 Haitians(History of Haiti). PresidentWilson in 1916 established a military dictatorship over the Dominican Republic. Wilson also had the marines occupy and subdue large part of Nicaragua at thatgovernments request. President Woodrow Wilson has been marked for his greatissue of foreign poilicy. Latin America was effected greatly by all the policiesthat were promoted by President Wilson. Although some of his ideas were denied,such as the League of Nations, his effort to unite the nations has made a bigimpact on American and Latin American history. Woodrow Wilson is the presidentwith the greatest intervention in Latin America.

Rape in Ancient Societies

Rape in Ancient Societies Introduction One way to understand the view of ancient men is to rely on the insights provided by a gifted writer. Shakespeare is still relevant in the 21st century as he was during his time because of his ability to penetrate human nature. He does not only understand human nature but he is also a master when it comes to explaining it in terms and images readily understood by common men.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Rape in Ancient Societies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Shakespeare has another talent and it is his ability to look into ancient history and draw inspiration from there. One of his important works that relates to this topic is the play entitled The Rape of Lucrece. In this play Shakespeare sheds light on the mentality of the rapist and victim in ancient times. The most poignant part of the play is when Lucrece, after securing an oath from husband and father to avenge the wrong done to her, committed suicide.[1] This is an important scene because it shows the way society view the victim of the rape. Even if the rapist was the evildoer, the act itself has somehow transferred his wickedness into the victim, forcing her to kill herself. It has to be pointed out that rape is a crime that is difficult to prove. In a time when there were no scientific means to prove sexual assault it is difficult for a woman to build a clear case against a rapist especially if there were no witnesses. Going back to the story of Lucrece, her suicide was necessary to prove to everyone that she did nothing wrong. In the words of one commentary, â€Å"her death is to function as the ultimate sign of her innocence.†[2] Her family believed her story. It was Tarquin who forced her to sin against her body and therefore there was no need to commit suicide. However, her reputation suffers because at the time of the sexual act, although it must be considered rape, she allowed it to happen. Shak espeare wrote this play based on what he knows about ancient societies such as Greece and Rome. Before going any further it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of rape. Jane Gallop, in The Daughter’s of Seduction has this to say: The notions of integrity and closure in the text are like that of virginity in a body. They assume that if one does not respect the boundaries between inside and outside, one is ‘breaking and entering,’ violating a property. As long as the fallacies of integrity and closure are upheld, a desire to penetrate becomes a desire to rape.[3]Advertising Looking for research paper on ancient history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The above statement also reveals an important feature of the act of rape that it begins in the mind. It begins with desire and the rapist is guilty even before he has committed the act. This must serve as a strong deterrent to rape . But the status of women in ancient societies was so low that men can were able to do what they please. Sexual assault was not as clearly defined and many of the guilty were left unpunished. It is now time to examine if the Greeks have a better understanding of the violent nature of rape. Ancient Greece The Greeks are known for their wisdom but even their enlightened rulers and philosopher did not develop laws to protect women from rape and the consequences of rape. They did not create laws that acted as a deterrent to violating the consent of women. They did not create laws to send a message that their society honors women in the same way that it honors the men. There were laws about rape but the focus is to protect the property and the reputation of the husband. Women in ancient Greece did not directly benefit from these laws because these laws are dependent on their relationship to a man. They have to be a wife, daughter, mother, or a palleke, a slave-woman kept for the purpose of bearing children.[4] In other words the crime of rape must be punished to deal with the offense made against husband and father but not to the victim of the said crime. The idea that laws about rape were created for the benefit of men was made clear in the story of Euphiletus trial on the murder of Eratosthenes. Euphiletus said that he knew that Eratosthenes was seducing his wife and when he caught them in the act of adultery he killed him. The plot thickens when Euphiletus found himself on trial for the murder of an adulterer when their law justifies the murder of a person caught seducing a pallake. Euphiletus added that if the law justifies this act then how much more the husbands murderous rage against an adulterer.[5] Euphiletus went on to explain why seduction is more dangerous than rape and he said: The rapist incurs the hatred of his victim, the seducer corrupts the very soul of the woman and gains greater control over her than her husband has. The seducer thus gets the en tire household under his control, making it impossible for the husband to know the father of his wife’s children.[6] Euphiletus made an interesting point with regards to the laws against adultery, rape and seduction. But the importance of his statement is on how it sheds light on the mindset of ancient Greeks when it comes to their women. As one can observe rape was made evil not because it violated the women but because the act can produce unwanted children.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Rape in Ancient Societies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thus, it can be interpreted as an act disadvantageous to the husband and protector of the female victim. For instance, in the case of a rapist attacking a man’s daughter, the rapist must be made to answer for his crime because the moment the daughter conceives after the rape, she would bring dishonor to the family. At the same time it raises a probl em when it comes to the responsibility of taking care of the child. There is no one who can help her raise the child. A rapist caught in the act of raping a man’s mother has to be punished because the act has brought shame to the family. There is also a possibility that the rapist has sired a child and this can be the root cause of a destructive family struggle later on. The same thing can be said about the raping the wife and the pallake. The end-goal is to erase all doubts that the children sired by these women are the legitimate heirs and not sired by a rapist and seducer. It is very clear that although Rome has sophisticated laws to deal with rape and seduction, all of these laws are for the benefit of men. Women are valued primarily as a bearer of children. Thus, their rights do not extend far from how they are perceived by the men in their household. These laws reveal a significantly different mindset when compared to the ideals of human rights and women’s rights in the 21st century. The concept of rape against women follows the same pattern as that of ancient Greece. The following statement clarifies the way sexual offenses were viewed during this time: â€Å"Sexual offenses by men involving women (rape, adultery, seduction, even sexual insults) were offenses against men’s authority over their household members.†[7] In ancient Greece adultery and rape were not clearly distinguished and the punishment was the same most of the time.[8] There is a simple explanation, â€Å"the victim of both crimes was not the person attacked but the man whose house she dwelt.†[9] Aside from the need to protect the family lineage these laws were created to protect the property of the men in a male-dominated society. Ancient Rome When Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates were formulating great ideas, Rome was still an unknown entity in the Western world. However, centuries later when Rome began to consolidate power to become a superpower in Euro pe, not much has change when it comes to how men treated women. According to one commentary: As is often true in patriarchal societies, the roles and identities of women in ancient Rome were generally seen as inseparable from those of the men to whom they were related. Roman women’s lives were expected to make a neat transition from the position of daughter and sister to that of wife and mother.[10]Advertising Looking for research paper on ancient history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A Roman myth called the Rape of the Sabine Women reveals how women are viewed in this ancient society. In the said myth the Romans wanted to form an alliance with a neighboring tribe called the Sabine. But this tribe was clearly not interested with the proposal. Thus, the Romans abducted the daughters of the Sabine people and forced them to be their wives. Technically, they were raped, but the reaction of the women provided a glimpse into their mindset when it comes to the relationship between men and women. In the aftermath of the abduction the Sabine tribe declared war on Rome but their captured daughters pleaded with them and begged â€Å"not to force a choice between their family of birth and their family of marriage.†[11] In this instance, rape became a prelude to marriage demonstrating once again that if the male relatives of the victims of rape are unable to redeem their honor then the woman’s value was lost forever. In this case their value was redeemed by agre eing to be married to their captors. This particular myth was in reference to the early days of Rome. It is important to find out if there was a significant change that occurred when Rome became a Republic. But just the same, the laws against rape were created to protect the honor of the male relatives. As a matter of fact the insult done to the woman is also considered as an insult to the male relative.[12] If the male relatives took matters into their own hand and kill the rapist, the prosecution against them was known to be very lenient.[13] Nevertheless, nothing can be done to restore the victim’s value. The offense of rape was considered a capital charge and therefore the punishment can be death, banishment or diminution of the civil status of the rapist.[14] Everything was done to prove to the world that the family’s honor was redeemed and that the male relative will not lose face in public. But nothing can be done to restore the value of the victim. The idea tha t an unmarried Roman girl has to be chaste has frightening consequences for the rape victim because: â€Å"Chastity was a vital element in the girl’s value for marriage, and if she had been violated before, her future was irrevocably spoiled. It got worse if she conceived during the rape. She lost her value as an object of exchange between families and could redeem herself only by death.[15] It is time to find out if much has change after the passage of thousands of years. It is important to determine if modern societies were able to see the value of women beyond their relationship with a man. Modern Times There is a major difference in the way modern people view rape compared to the mindset of the ancient Greeks and Romans. In the ancient world rape is not just an act committed against a woman, it is an act committed against a woman under the supervision of a male relative. As a result, analysis of Greek and Roman literature will reveal that in their ancient societies adult ery and rape are seen as a similar offense against the head of the household. The modern view of rape is a sexual act committed without a woman’s consent.[16] But ancient Greece and ancient Rome had a different view than modern societies as pointed out by Harris: â€Å"our concept focuses on the absence of the victim’s consent †¦ ancient authors, on the other hand, had very different notions from ours about women’s power and ability to grant consent and were more interested in questions of honor when it came to judging acts of sexual violence.†[17] Although modern societies have a more sophisticated view of rape there are certain things that remained unchanged. Sex crimes still abound today. Rape is still a serious problem in the modern world as it was in ancient times. Rape still devalues women to the point that victims do not report rape to the authorities. A female victim of rape will find her value diminished even to the point that she may find i t hard to find a husband. Society still frowns on the victim even if it is not her fault. The laws of the modern world, however, offer more protection to the women regardless of her status.[18] She does not need the help of a male relative in order to defend her honor in court. Nevertheless, society still views a victim as damaged goods. When comparing ancient and modern societies one can see that the major difference is in the way women had liberated themselves from the clutches of a male-dominated world. Wives and daughters still believe in mutual respect when it comes to their relationship with husbands and fathers but the men can no longer treat them as if they were their property. The change in perception also created unexpected results such as the freedom of women to associate with men. In ancient times certain rules of conduct were in place to protect the honor of the family. The mere suspicion of undesirable behavior between man and woman must be dealt with swiftly either by a forceful dissolution of the relationship or marriage. But in the 21st century women can choose to have relationships with any man they would like. The unintended consequence is the emergence of a new form of rape called date rape. In layman’s terms date rape occurs between two people that are dating.[19] It can also happen between two acquaintances that happened to meet in a party.[20] The act is technically rape but the major difference is that the male perpetrator is known to the female victim. Rape can occur by the use of violence or by drugs.[21] The rapist can put a drug into a girl’s drink and when she passes out he takes advantage of her. It is also important to point out that date rape or simply rape can be the culmination of a series of violent acts. In other words the man can abuse the woman until the violence ends up in rape. It is of crucial importance to discuss date rape in the examination of the evolution of rape from ancient times to the present. Dat e rape is a remote possibility in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. The reported cases of violence committed by boyfriends against their girlfriends can only occur in the present time. Violent men and sex predators are dealt with swiftly and decisively in ancient Greece and Rome. The swift resolution of the problem is based on the fact that men are responsible for the women under their care. They will not allow stranger and other men to even come close to their daughters and wives if they are not assured of their true intentions. Much has been said about the abuses committed in a patriarchal society. There is no need to elaborate the fact that laws must cater to both men and women. However, something has to be done to develop a strong bond between families. It is not wise and practical to go back to ancient practices but one thing has to be made clear, they know how to protect their women. Today, sexual violence is on the rise and women are left to fend for themselves. Conclusion The re is not much difference between ancient Greece and ancient Rome when it comes to the way they deal with rape. Their laws were specifically designed to protect the honor and the property of the male relative. Rape, adultery, and seduction are all the same when the act is committed by someone who is not related to the female. In modern times women are no longer treated like property by their husbands and fathers. Women are free to mingle with other men. But this new found freedom has created a weakness that sex predators and unscrupulous men are willing to exploit. Something has to be done to strengthen the bond between family members without recreating the social structures of a male-dominated society. Bibliography Edwards, Catharine. Death in Ancient Rome. MA: Yale University Press, 2007. Gagarin, Michael and Elaine Fantham. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece  and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Harris, Edward. Democracy and the Rule of Law in Classical Ath ens. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Harris, Edward. â€Å"Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds.† Diotima. Last modified 2007. Larmour, David. Rethinking Sexuality: Focault and Classical Antiquity. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998. Orr, Tamara. Frequently Asked Questions about Date Rape. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007. Parrot, Andrea. Coping with Date Rape and Acquaintance Rape. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1999. Quay, Sara. â€Å"Lucrece the Chaste: The Construction of Rape in Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece.† Modern Language Studies 25, no. 2 (1995): 3-17. Schnabel, Stephanie. The Theme of Rape in Elizabethan and Jacobean Literary  Text. Berlin: Verlag, 2006. Wilkins, Jessica. Date Rape. New York: Crabtree Publishing, 2011. Footnotes Sara Quay, â€Å"Lucrece the Chaste: The Construction of Rape in Shakespeare’s The Rape of Lucrece,† Modern Language Studies 25, no. 2 (1995): 3 Catharine Edwards, Death in Ancient Rome (MA: Yale University Press, 2007), 181. Quay, 3. Harris 286. Ibid. Edward Harris, Democracy and the Rule of Law in Classical Athens (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 284. David Larmour, Rethinking Sexuality: Focault and Classical Antiquity (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 132. Ibid. Ibid. Michael Gagarin and Elaine Fantham,The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and  Rome (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 249. Ibid. Stephanie Schnabel, The Theme of Rape in Elizabethan and Jacobean Literary Text  (Berlin: Verlag, 2006), 10. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Edward Harris, â€Å"Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds.†Ã‚  Diotima. Last modified 2007. Ibid. Ibid. Jessica Wilkins, Date Rape (New York: Crabtree Publishing, 2011), 7. Tamra Orr, Frequently Asked Questions about Date Rape (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2007), 23. Andrea Parrot, Coping with Date Rape and Acquaintance Rape ( New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 1999), 49

What Caused the Civil War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What Caused the Civil War - Essay Example The technological changes in the mid-19th century were extensive. To being with, agricultural, long a staple of the South, and an important livelihood in a country that had not yet rapidly urbanized, was hugely important. The steel plow and the mechanical reaper were invented in this period and allowed for farmers to spend less energy harvesting and to produce greater yields (Boyer, et al, 238). New irrigation techniques also provided more arable land. An additional technological change that had a big impact was the rise of railroads (Boyer, et al, 240). Rail coverage expanded nearly ten times over a twenty year period. Americans of all classes were able to travel freely and comfortably. Perhaps more than anything this helped to open up the West during this period. Culture was rapidly increasing during this period too, as American writers looked inward to their soul and outward to their growing country. Writers like Dickinson, Thoreau and Emerson published works that began the process of defining what it meant to be American. A definition that would be sorely tested during the Civil War. The president at the time, Abraham Lincoln was a very principled and serious lawyer who cared a lot about his country. He fought against politicians who were pro-slavery, but he was conflicted about what the solution to this terrible problem. When he became president at first he didn’t believe the solution was to free all the slaves, nor did he think this was the most important issue in the Civil War between North and South. He saw too many shades of grey. But as the war progressed, he began to see that slavery was the main issue and he would have to do something about it. Slavery was an important issue, but one thing that Lincoln didnt understand was how technology was changing things dramatically. One of the great consequences of technology was that it allowed the war to be that much more vicious and to kill many more people than expected. This

Intertextuality in Contemporary Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Intertextuality in Contemporary Writing - Essay Example However, it must first be questioned whether or not sharing a general plot makes stories similar, or if it is the unique creation of that story which is valued above all others. The concept of intertextuality is not new. Intertextuality is defined as "Intertextuality is the shaping of texts' meanings by other texts. It can refer to an author's borrowing and transformation of a prior text or to a reader's referencing of one text in reading another" (Wikipedia). Another, more clear and accepted definition describes intertextuality as Texts, whether they be literary or non-literary are viewed by modern theorists as lacking in any kind of independent meaning. They are what theorists now call intertextual. The act of reading, theorists claim, plunges us into a network of textual relations. To interpret a text, to discover its meaning or meanings is to trace those relations. Reading thus becomes a process of moving between texts. Meaning becomes something that exists between a text and all other texts to which it refers to and relates, moving out from the independent text into a network of textual relations. (Hansen, Intertextuality) Even the word draws from other sources, having been changed and developed to its' current meaning. Yet intertextuality is more than just the influences that other writers and texts have upon the text in question. It affects the subject of the piece, the style of the writing, even the word choice made. It is semiotics to every detail, and intertextuality suggests that there is actually nothing new in a new text, that all ideas have been borrowed or influenced by other writers and texts. To suggest that all writing is a form of plagiarism is an interesting concept, and yet holds quite a bit of validity. Even now, in this essay, the ideas have been written before. The form has been written before. Other authors have expounded on the concept of intersexuality. If all essays were compared, chances are there would be little that was not found in at least two essays. If not even an essay can be unique, then how can a novel, or a play Yet, at the same time, how can they not be unique An excellent example of this is Carpentier's essay, "Like the Night." Clearly, the concept of looking at how a soldier feels about war is not unique in and of itself. Look at contemporary classics, such as The Things They Carried. Like "Like the Night" the story focuses on the tales of men at war, and their thoughts and feelings about what is happening around them. Yet, while they each share unique thoughts and ideas, would they not both be strengthened by reading both texts They are a part of the intertextual network that Hansen described. Another piece that deserves notice is Barth's "Dunyazadiad." This piece clearly draws on other works and ideas, as it is not a story meant to stand alone, but rather a remake of an already written story. His story not only connects to other stories on an idea basis but also embellishes and changes a story that already had meaning and idea. There are deeper concepts in this story then, since it adds yet another layer to the original story, bringing the meanings written by that author, and by Barth. Clearly, this piece cannot stand by itself, since it would lose so much. So, the answer to the question â€Å"The concept of intertextuality reminds us that each text exists in relation to others.     Ã‚  

The Reproductive Health Bill

The Reproductive Health Bill Public opinion is the aggregate of individual dispositions and beliefs with regards to important issues. Public opinion holds great importance in democracies because a democracy, by its very definition, connotes a form of government that is responsive to the people. Democracy is most often defined as a set of procedures and institutions intended to make the holders of political power directly responsible to the electorates. The quality of democratic government is measured by the responsiveness of public policymakers to the preferences of the mass public. For that reason, public opinion will always play an important role in policy-making process in the Philippines, a democratic country. Views and opinions of the general public should be taken into consideration in formulating, passing and implementing a policy. Hence, stakeholders and interests groups roles are very vital in affecting policy outcomes since stakeholders and interest groups are the means through which public opinion is brought in the Halls of the Congress. In view of this, the government is faced with the need to balance the conflicting views of different stakeholders, interest and pressure groups in the decision-making process. This is clearly exemplified in the controversial Reproductive Health bill. This paper studies the different stakeholders involved in the Reproductive Health Bill and the degree in which they affect policy outcome based on the resources and resource mobilization capacities they have. The first part of this paper includes definition and the presentation of health and population situation in the Philippines. The second part focuses with the provisions, debates and proponent of RH bill. The third part provides an analysis of the different stakeholders and resources and resource mobilization capacity that they have. Lastly, the examination of how these stakeholders and interest groups can actually affect policy outcome and the degree on which they affect it. The controversy of RH bill led to many implications. Reproductive health is now a byword that enthralled the public attention. Therefore, there is a need to define the term based on a standard definition. Reproductive health addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system at all stages of life. Reproductive health implies that people are able to have a responsible, satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so (World Health Organization). Although this appears to be the only definition of the term in any international document, the definition implicitly implies that reproductive health includes the right of men and women to be informed of and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of fertility regulation of their choice, and the right of access to appropriate health care services that will enable women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant (International Conference on Population and Development, 1994). Of the eight Millennium Development Goals, achieving universal access to reproductive health by 2015 is one of the two targets of Goal 5, Improving Maternal Health. Due to this, a comprehensive study of the reproductive health in the Philippines is greatly needed and in turn, to develop and actually implement a policy that will give Filipinos equal chances to the right to reproductive health and develop programs that will seek to address problems related to reproductive health in the country. Over the past 30 years, developing countries population have rise up almost twice the rate of those in the developed and advanced countries. As an effect, a number of people have caught up with high infant mortality, low life expectancy, disease, malnutrition and illiteracy. Rapid population growth causes difficulties in managing economic and social changes, including the balancing of the fruits of economic development efforts (Leverage International, 2011). Governments of the Third World countries and as well as of those developed nations recognized that the measurement of economic development is not based only on economic indicators such as income distribution but also by the quality of life of its people (Leverage International, 2011). Philippines, as a developing country, experiences rapid population growth. According to the 2007 Census by the National Statistics Office (NSO), the Philippine population was 88.57 million and the estimated population as of 2010 is 94.3 million and this made the country as the 12th most populous country in the world. This high population results to high infant mortality rate which is 19.94% in 2010. In addition to this, the lifetime risk of maternal death in the Philippines is 1 in every 140, according to United Nations International Children Emergency Funds State of the Worlds Children 2009 report. Each day, about 11 Filipino mothers or 4,500 each year die because of hypertensive disorders, severe hemorrhage or other labor- or abortion-related problems. The country is also part of a group of 68 countries where 97% of worldwide maternal, neonatal and child health deaths occur. Moreover, the county is witnessing the fastest spread of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in its history. Five new HIV cases are recorded everyday according to the National Epidemiology Center of the Department of Health. High infant mortality rate, high maternal mortality rate and a number of HIV cases are not the only problems that the Philippines is experiencing in relation to reproductive health. Because of the lack of a concrete reproductive health and family planning policy and program in the country, unwanted pregnancy incidences become high. Due to this, Filipino women are forced to undergo induced abortion as one of the methods that they use to meet their reproductive goals. Although abortion is illegal in the Philippines, and despite the potential harmful consequences of an unsafe abortion for womens health and life, many women resort to abortion to meet their family-size goals or to space births (The Guttmacher Institute, 2003). The Incidence of Induced Abortion in the Philippines: Current Level and Recent Trends (2005), a study conducted by Fatima Juarez, Josefina Cabigon, Susheela Singh, and Rubina Hussain for the Guttmacher Institute revealed the following: Six in 10 Filipino women say they have experienced an unintended pregnancy at some point in their lives. About 1.43 million pregnancies each yearnearly half of all pregnancies in the Philippinesare unintended. Some 54% of women who have ended an unintended pregnancy by abortion were not using any family planning method when they conceived. Of those who were practicing contraception, three-fourths were using a traditional method. The average Filipino woman wants 2.5 children. In order to achieve that goal, she must spend more than 19 years using effective contraceptive methods. However, nearly half of all married women of reproductive age have an unmet need for effective contraceptionthat is, they are sexually active, are able to have children, do not want a child soon or ever, but are not using any form of contraception or are using traditional methods, which have high failure rates. Aside from induced abortion that can lead to deaths, other problem due to the lack of reproductive health policy is the risk of acquiring cervical cancer. The Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is a sexually-transmitted, wart-forming virus that has been implicated in causing cancer of the cervix. This is the most common cancer in women secondary to breast cancer (Department of Health, 2008). Due to these findings and other statistics such as high infant and mortality rates, these imply that there is an immense need for a policy to ensure the right to reproductive health in the Philippines. Although reproductive health has long been considered a basic universal human right, this right remains elusive and illusory for millions of Filipinos, especially the poor. The first comprehensive version of reproductive health bill, House Bill 8110 or The Integrated Population and Development Act of 1999 was filed in the 11th Congress. Twelve years after, the country still does not have a reproductive health policy and the issue of the current reproductive health bills remains a heated and controversial issue as the first RH bill. Today, the struggle of RH advocates still continues for the passage of a comprehensive reproductive health bill. House Bill 4244 or The Responsible Parenthood, Reproductive Health and Population and Development Act of 2011 is the most recent version of a reproductive health bill that was filed in the 15th Congress. H.B. 4244 is popularly known as the consolidated RH bill in substitution to the other reproductive health bills that are pending in the Congress. The other reproductive health bills are as follows: House Bill 96 (Rep. Edcel Lagman) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health, Responsible Parenthood and Population Development and for Other Purposes House Bill 101 (Rep. Janette Garin) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health and Population Development and for Other Purposes House Bill 513 (Reps. Kaka Bag-ao and Warden Bello of Akbayan Partylist) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health and Population and Development and for Other Purposes House Bill 1160 (Rep. Rodolfo Biazon) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health and for Other Purposes House Bill 1520 (Rep. Judy Syjuco) An Act to Protect the Right of the People to Information on Reproductive Health Care House Bill 3368 (Rep. Luzviminda Ilagan and Emmi de Jesus of Gabriela Womens Party) An Act Providing for a National Policy on Reproductive Health for Women and Development and for Other Purposes H.B 4244s objectives are as follows: To uphold and promote respect for life, informed choice, birth spacing and responsible parenthood in conformity with internationally recognized human rights standards. To guarantee universal access to medically-safe, legal and quality reproductive health care services and relevant information even as it prioritizes the needs of women and children. To realize these goals, the consolidated RH Bill has the following key provisions: Mandates the Department of Health (DOH) and Local Health Units in cities and municipalities shall serve as the lead agencies for the implementation of this act. Mandates the Population Commission, to be an attached agency of the Department of Health, shall serve as a coordinating body in the implementation of this Act. Provides for the creation of an enabling environment for women and couples to make an informed choice regarding the family planning method that is best suited to their needs and personal convictions. The LGUs and the DOH shall ensure that a Minimum Initial Service Package (MISP) for reproductive health, including maternal and neonatal health care kits and services will be given proper attention in crisis situations such as disasters and humanitarian crises. Provides for a maternal death review in LGUs, national and local government hospitals and other public health units to decrease the incidence of maternal deaths. Products and supplies for modern family planning methods shall be part of the National Drug Formulary and the same shall be included in the regular purchase of essential medicines and supplies of all national and local hospitals and other government health units. Ensures the availability of hospital-based family planning methods such as tubal ligation, vasectomy and intrauterine device insertion in all national and local government hospitals, except in specialty hospitals. Provides for a Mobile Health Care Service in every Congressional District to deliver health care goods and services. Provides Mandatory Age-appropriate Reproductive Health Education starting from Grade 5 to Fourth Year High School to develop the youth into responsible adults. The Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) shall ensure that employees respect the reproductive health rights of workers. Mandates private and nongovernment reproductive health care service providers to provide at least forty-eight (48) hours annually of reproductive health services free of charge to indigent and low income patients, especially to pregnant adolescents. Mandates cities and municipalities to provide sexual and reproductive health programs for persons with disabilities (PWDs). Mandates the inclusion of the topics on responsible parenthood, family planning, breastfeeding and infant nutrition as essential part of the information given by local Family Planning office to all applicants for marriage license. Mandates no less than 10% increase in the honoraria of community-based volunteer workers, such as the barangay health workers, upon successful completion of training on the delivery of reproductive health care services. Creation of Congressional Oversight Committee (COC) which shall be composed of five (5) members each from the Senate and from the House of Representatives which shall monitor and ensure the effective implementation of this Act, determine the inherent weakness and loopholes in the law, recommend the necessary remedial legislation or administrative measures and perform such other duties and functions as may be necessary to attain the objectives of this Act. Penalizes the violator of this Act from one month to six months imprisonment or a fine ranging from ten thousand to fifty thousand pesos or both such fine and imprisonment at the discretion of the Court. H.B 4244 covers all other six pending RH bills in the Congress but despite the clear purpose of the bill, the enactment of RH bill is long overdue. On the other hand, RH bill advocates see the passage of the consolidated RH bill in the 15th Congress since it was already approved by the House Committee on Population and Family Relations last February 1 and it was also approved by the Committee on Appropriations with a vote of 20-3. Last March 8 which is incidentally the International Womens Day, RH bill reached the plenary. Biliran Representative Rogelio Espina, chairman of the Committee on Population and Family Relations, delivered his sponsorship speech on Committee Report 664. Three of the six sponsors of the bill also delivered speeches urging for its passage Minority Leader and Albay Representative Edcel Lagman, Gabriela partylist Representative Luz Ilagan and Akbayan partylist Representative Arlene Kaka Bag-ao. Meanwhile, President Benigno Aquino III ordered Health Secreaty Enrique Ona to draft the Responsible Parenthood Bill that would perhaps serve as a middle ground between RH advocates and the Church. Moreover, the President did also not include RH bill as part of his list of policy priorities after the Church issued a pastoral letter entitled Choosing Life, Rejecting RH Bill. Though Rep. Lagman believes that the Malacaà ±ang-sponsored version of the RH bill would not be able take the place of a more comprehensive RH bill since it is limited to the issue of family planning and responsible parenthood. Moreover, Health Secretary Ona is a known advocate of reproductive health and family planning. His public pronouncements have confirmed that he, like his predecessor Sec. Espie Cabral, is unwavering in his belief that RH is a basic human right. Because of this, Cong. Lagman believes that the crafting of the Responsible Parenthood bill would and should not delay the passage of the consolida ted RH bill. Cong. Edcel Lagman of the First District of Albay is the principal author of the consolidated RH bill. According to him, the incidences of infant and maternal mortality in his own district are within the range of the national average. As a solution, they have set up lying-in clinics and birthing centers in the upland and island barangays of the first district of Albay so as to ensure that mothers in far flung barangays can be given emergency and basic obstetric care. However, the problem of maternal and infant mortality and morbidity goes beyond the First District of Albay. The preventable deaths of mothers and children happen on a national scale so the need to formulate a national policy on reproductive health is imperative. Although he is a Catholic he believes that like many other Catholics in the country, they can be good Catholics and still support a measure like RH bill that puts a premium on quality of life and the protection and fulfilment of the basic human rights to reproductive health and sustainable human development. He also noted that the word catholic when used as an adjective means all-embracing, forward-looking and liberal. The antonym of catholic is conservative, narrow-minded and intolerant. That is why it is very ironic that the Catholic Church particularly the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) strongly opposes RH bill. Rep. Lagman is also the newly-elect chair of one of the ruling party in the country, the Lakas Kampi Catholic Muslim Democrats (CMD). However, because of the nature of the party system in the Philippines, this position in his party would not guarantee the passage of RH bill. According to him, his colleagues are free to support or oppose an issue as they see fit. Members of his party are not required to vote for or support RH bill. It is interesting to note that the former President and the incumbent representative of the second district of Pampanga, Rep. Gloria Arroyo, who is a member of the Lakas Kampi CMD is known to be a critic of RH bill. In line with this, the conflicting views on RH bill do not only occur inside Congress. Central to the issue of RH bill is the political dynamics of the numerous actors involved in affecting the passage of the said bill. The different stakeholders and interest groups play important roles in the deliberation of the policy. This put the challenge to the legislators to balance and to be able to reconcile the conflicting views of these stakeholders and interest groups. But how did citizens start to participate in the decision-making process? Due to influx of information, there came a higher level of consciousness among citizens. Peoples desire to participate in decision-making process amplified. People demand more of representation and participation in the government. In less complex times, elected representation was a sufficient means for most citizens to participate in government. Recently, for a number of reasons, including the diversity of citizens cultural heritage, needs, values, and interests, that has been changing and of course, the changes brought about by modernization, there is now a strong desire for citizens to be involved broadly in governance and directly in policy decisions. Governments, especially in developing countries, are very vulnerable and they are being assessed based on their economic and political performance. And one of the bases of a governments political performance is its capacity to provide venues for peoples participation and involvement. Hence, views and opinions of the general public should be taken into consideration in formulating, passing and implementing a policy. For this reason, one of the biggest challenges which government faces is the need to balance the conflicting views of different interest groups in a particular policy. This problem is very much observed in the issue of coming up with a reproductive health policy in the Philippines. Conflicting views and opinions from numerous actors and stakeholders in the reproductive health bill have always marred the passage of the said bill. Certain sectors and segments of the population will definitely be affected upon the implementation of the said policy and they also have different views regarding the passage of RH bill. However, the stakeholders who have the resources to influence or actually determine the success or failure of the reproductive health bill are the Roman Catholic Church, the women sector and pharmaceutical companies in the country. The table below shows an analysis of the four primary stakeholders in the RH bill. From the stakeholders listed above, the Catholic Church and organized women groups are the primary actors in the debate in adopting a reproductive health policy in the country because they are the most visible in terms of their campaign for or against the said policy. The Catholic Church is the main critic of the reproductive health bill because it argues that the policy is anti-life because it promotes the use of modern contraception measures. Also, it argues that RH bill does not really address poverty. In the researchers interview with Archbishop Oscar V. Cruz and Carmelo Cruz, Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) News Editor, they said that the Catholic Churchs judgment in the political performance of former President Ferdinand Marcos that significantly contribute for making EDSA People Power I happened in 1986 is the same as their opposition to the six pending reproductive health bills in the Congress. Their opposition to the immoral regime of Pres. Marcos is the same as their opposition to an immoral policy, the reproductive health bill. (This was also written in CBCPs Pastoral Letter entitled Choosing Life, Rejecting RH bill issued last January 30, 2011.) Moreover, they believe that it is not the poor Filipino people who will benefit from the implementation of the reproductive health bill but the foreign owners of transnational pharmaceutical companies who will supply modern contraceptives. They also believe that if a reproductive health bill will be enacted into law, it will paved the way for the introduction and passage of other policies such as policies on divorce, mercy killing and same sex marriage. The Catholic Church believes that the passage of a reproductive health bill will deteriorate the authentic human values and as well as the Filipino cultural values in accordance to the teachings of the Church. Archbishop Oscar V. Cruz said that although reproductive health bill can lessen infant and maternal mortality, he argued that the reason behind infant and maternal mortality and morbidity is poverty and inaccessible to basic health care services. According to him, health care services are inaccessible to poor families because of bad governance and corruption, services are not delivered to poor communities because public official corrupt the money that is intended for communities welfare. For these reasons, the solution to infant and maternal mortality in the country is not the reproductive health bill, the solution needs to focus to the root causes of the problem which is bad governance and poverty. However, the Catholic hierarchy said that is not against the elimination of violence against women, the treatment of breast cancer, maternal and child health and nutrition and other elements of RH. It is only against making modern family planning methods available to women and couples and the teaching of sexuality and RH education to the youth. The Church believes that RH bill would violate the teachings of the Church specifically the 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae which is the basis of the Church teaching that contraceptives are intrinsically evil. The Church has been firm in its stand against RH bill. The Church is having dialogues to the current administration to turn down RH bills that are pending in Congress. Moreover, the Church through its archdioceses and dioceses consults representatives from each district for them to be convinced not to vote for RH bill. Also, the CBCP issues statements to inform the public why RH bill should not be enacted into law. And what is more important is the impact of the Catholic Church in shaping or influencing public opinion since majority of Filipinos are Catholics. Some officials are threatened that their stand regarding the issue on RH bill might affect their political careers. Because of the strong opposition of the Catholic Church to adopt a reproductive health policy in the country and the resources it has to affect the decisions of public officials, the passage of the bill becomes impossible despite the need for a reproductive health policy in the country. Last January 30, CBCP issued a pastoral letter against RH bill. As an effect, the President did not include RH bill from among the Legislative Executive Development Advisory Councils policy measures that probably would unduly delay again the passage of RH bill. If the Catholic Church strongly oppose RH bill, organized womens groups tell the other side of the story. Womens organizations such as Gabriela Womens Party and Likhaan Center for Womens Health Inc. stalwartly campaign for the passage of RH bill. These RH advocate groups believe that the rights of people to reproductive health do not depend on a few powerful men deciding the fate of women (Likhaan, 2011). In the explanatory note of House Bill 3368 introduced by Gabriela Womens Party, it states that Filipino women do not have to die at childbirth just because they are poor, they do not have to suffer from undiagnosed cervical, breast, vulvar, ovarian or similar cancers of the reproductive system just because they do not have access to adequately staffed and equipped public health facilities Women do not have to suffer from untreated uterine fibroid or such similar conditions just because diagnostic procedures are costly, women should not die at childbirth because their infants need th em for optimum care, love and affection if children are to grow up to realize their full potential as productive and responsible members of our society. Due to these reasons, access to reproductive health programs, resources and services for marginalized women needs to be guaranteed by the government. A national reproductive health policy is seen to offer health care services that will basically benefit women, especially the marginalized. Advancing reproductive health rights in a comprehensive, available, accessible, acceptable, and democratic manner is a long overdue mandate of the Philippine government to its female population given the social and economic realities in the country. Hence, the approval of legislators to pass RH bill is indispensable (Likhaan, 2011). According to Junice Demeterio-Melgar, the executive director of Likhaan and Secretary-General of Reproductive Health Advocacy Network (RHAN), family planning will save the lives of mothers because family planning changes the composition of child-bearing. This means that pregnancies in women who are considered at a higher risk of dying from pregnancy and childbirth-related causes will be dramatically reduced. These are women who are too young, too old, have had too many children or have had unremitting pregnancies. Medical experts have stated that pregnancy in women below 18 or above 35 is considered high risk. They have also emphasized that womens bodies need anywhere from two to three years to fully recover from the rigors of pregnancy and childbirth. Moreover, the World Health Organization concludes that if women have information and access to contraceptives and are taught to use them properly, the fall in maternal mortality is likely to be even greater than the fall in the pregnancy rate. With their struggle for the passage of RH bill, womens groups tied up with other RH advocates to pressure legislators to pass RH bill. Reproductive Health Advocacy Network (RHAN), which has forty-three (43) national organizations with no less than 10,000 members in grassroots communities nationwide, continues to have dialogues with the President and with their recent dialogue, RHAN reminded the President about his Social Contract, which included a commitment to responsible parenthood based on informed choice and support to poor families. RHAN, specifically Likhaan, is disappointed with the Presidents decision to resort to a Responsible Parenthood Bill instead of a more comprehensive RH bill. According to them, further dialogues of the President to CBCP will trap his administration into delay and inaction, or push it to drop the freedom of choice principle in the Presidents promise of responsible parenthood since the Church will always disagree to any RH bill because its opposition to RH is based on the core principle of human life, it is clear that immovable religious beliefs are the bedrock of the bishops opposition to RH as pointed out by the recent CBCPs pastoral letter. Further dialogues or consultations will never change the stance of the Catholic Church. Aside from dialogues, advocates continue to hold fora and debates on the issues of RH and human development from schools and universities to service clubs and community-based organizations. In addition, they hold mobilizations and rallies in front of Congress to pressure legislators to enact the said bill. Both stakeholders prove to be significant and effective in their campaign for or against RH bill. However, the Church as an established and one of the most powerful institutions in the country which affect public opinion has an advantage in affecting the outcome of the said policy. However, RH advocates do not only have the superiority of numbers but they also have the superiority of arguments. Although the Church has the capacity to influence or even shape public opinion, perhaps the case on the debate on RH bill is isolated. Recent survey results show that majority of Filipino and Filipino Catholics support RH bill. Although the RH critics say that people are only misinformed about the content of the measure, advocates say that the capacity of Filipinos to understand an issue like RH, responsible parenthood and population and development should not be underestimated. People support the RH bill because they realize how important it is to become a responsible parent. Filipinos also believe that is not only important for them to be able to plan and space their children, it is equally important that the State provide information on and access to all forms of family planning methods. The following data are results of SWS and Pulse Asia surveys: Social Weather Station (October 2008) 71% of Filipinos are in favor of the RH bill; 76% of Filipinos agree that there should be a law requiring government to teach family planning to the youth; and 68% believe that there should be a law requiring government to distribute legal contraceptives like condoms, pills and IUDs Pulse Asia (February 2010) 93% of Filipinos consider it important to have the ability to plan their families; 82% of Filipinos believe government should teach couples about all methods of family planning; Another 82% of Filipinos say that it is the governments duty to provide the people with knowledge, services, and materials on all methods of family planning; 75% of Filipinos consider it important that a candidate for election includes modern family planning in the program of action he will pursue; 64% of Filipinos will vote for candidates who publicly promote modern methods of family planning with only 6% saying that they will not vote for such candidates. The rest were undecided; and A considerable majority of Filipinos (63%) want the RH bill to be passed into law with only 8% expressing opposition to the measure. Even Catholics have spoken: They want the RH bill passed. 68% of Catholics believe that government

Discrimination Essay

Discrimination Is Expensive, Inclusion Is Profit On April 20th, 2001, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) settled a $2.44 million law suit against the University of Incarnate Word (UIW) due to the misuse of an English-Only rule. In Texas, the 18 Hispanic workers who were involved in the class action suit testified to being harassed and bullied over ten years. Their crime deserving of pervasive harassment was speaking Spanish on breaks and during lunch. The EEOC does what it can to limit the harm and misuse of the English-Only policies, but still to this day language discrimination cases are prevalent. The number of English-Only charges that were filed with the EEOC have increased by 500% since 1991(EEOC). Is the English-Only policy flawed, or are companies in America simply not paying enough attention to their employees? In order to reduce language discrimination, American companies need to understand the importance of their multilingual employees’ native language, and focus on the benefits that language diversity can provide. In order to understand how and why companies can enforce English-Only laws, we must examine the regulations set by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) regarding this law. First of all, can employers restrict their employees to speak English at a workplace or must they allow them to speak their native tongue? As with may other legal question this one does not have a simple answer. There are many factors that contribute to the creation of an English-Only rule at a workplace. As stated in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Section 1606.7, English-Only rules cannot be applied in order to discriminate (EEOC). If there is an English-Only rule at a workplace it must apply to all employees and cannot directly target a minority group*. There are a few exceptions of when an English-Only rule can be justified; for communication with customers and superiors, in emergencies when a common language is needed, and for cooperative work assignments (Forbe s). In essence the EEOC attempts to make it very difficult for companies to create such rules unless there is irrefutable evidence that such a rule is needed. Even with such restrictive regulations, why are there so many complaints filed with the EEOC that are caused directly or indirectly by English-Only rules? Despite the close monitoring of such rules, employees in companies with English-Only rules appear to be misusing them to discriminating minorities. Once such case of the rule being misused  to discriminate a minority happened at Delano Regional Medical Center. â€Å"Supervisors, staff, and even volunteers were allegedly encouraged to act as vigilantes, constantly berating and reprimanding Filipino-American employees for nearly six years† (DRMC)***. The Filipino nurses were harassed even during breaks, told to speak English, even though the EEOC regulations clearly state that such actions are not allowed. Besides being verbally abused and threatened some were even ph ysically assaulted. After the case was settled the medical center payed out $975,000. In a similar case the University of Incarnate Word (UIW) payed out a $2.44 million settlement for targeting and discriminating their Hispanic staff (UIW)***. Such cases should alert companies and organizations of the importance of regulating language equality among their staff. Perhaps the reason that cases of language discrimination keep occurring is because many English speaking Americans do not realize how important a native language is to an immigrant. Language is an identity, it defines who we are. Even within a single country a different dialect can define a person. Most people can tell that a person grew up in Boston, or Texas, or California without even seeing the person, simply by the way they talk. If New-yorkers can be proud of their New York accent, why cant immigrants be proud or their native language? Our language, accent, and dialect is as much a part of our identity as physical appearance or the color of our skin. Compared to other countries America does not place a big emphasis on learning foreign languages in it’s school system. Because English is the most diverse language in the world, kids are not taught to value and appreciate other languages. By understanding the struggles of the double lives that immigrants must lead, *it will be easier to see why they put so much emphasis on preserving their native language. No one understands the struggles of assimilating into a new culture more than Chang-rae Lee, who d escribes the hardships his mother while learning English, in his essay â€Å"Mute in an English-Only World†. He talks about how much his mother struggled with even simple, every day activities, only because she did not know English. Lee describes how his other could be â€Å"fiery, stern, deeply funny, and ironic† when she spoke Korean, but in English less so. Some of her identity was stripped away by a new language, she was not the same confident and proud women when she was forced to speak an foreign tongue. No law or rule should be able to strip a person identity by  forcing them to speak a language foreign to them. Some might argue that there is nothing wrong with the English-Only rules implemented in American companies. Immigrants should speak only English at work because they live in America, and in America we speak English. Yes, those claims do carry validity and those who immigrate to the United States should learn English, but should it be so strictly enforc ed? Ofcourse employees must be able to communicate with with coworkers and superiors, but should they be punished and abused while they learn the language? No, it is unfair and unconstitutional. America is not a county were one can simply live off the land and not have to work. Although there are programs such as Welfare which provide financial support for immigrants, they are not enough to fully support a family without supplementary income. As it already stands, most Americans oppose the newly proposed work requirement waiver. This means that you are required to maintain a job in order to receive benefits such as Welfare (Standard). Instead of encouraging non-English speaking immigrants to work and support themselves, English-Only laws only intimidate and hinder immigrants and further increase resentment towards them. Instead of scaring off potential employees with English-Only laws, companies should encourage immigrants to work for them in order to gain the many benefits they can provide. Encouraging immigrants to work will reduce unemployment, reducing unemployment improves the economy, and a better economy increases business success. By providing a better atmosphere for immigrant workers in the workplace, companies can create customers. Not only can the immigrants themselves become customers, they can also attract others. In his essay, Lee talks about a trip to a deli with this mother. After finally mustering the cou rage to visit this deli, Lee’s mother was scared off by the shop keeper who could not understand her Korean. After his mother said soggori â€Å"[t]he butcher looked as if my mother had put something sour in his mouth, and he glanced back at the lighted board and called the next number† (Lee). The deli owner lost her business and the profit that came with it. It might have gone much differently if he had a Korean worker that could help Lee’s mother out. As an immigrant myself, I can relate to Lee’s story. As I walk to school everyday I pass by a bakery, there is nothing special about it, nothing that stands out. For a few weeks I walked past the bakery with no intention to go inside, until one day. On one Tuesday morning as I was  walking my normal route I heard someone speaking Russian, when I turned to see who it was I that it was two employees of the bakery. Exited to hear my native tongue I came inside the bakery and introduced myself. After talking to them for fifteen minutes or so they recommended some good for me to try from the bakery. Ever since that day I always stop by that bakery to see my fellow comrades and buy an item or two. After talking to them I found out that they had just recently arrived to America and spoke very little English. They were hired at the deli despite not knowing English, because the owner valued their skill and did not have an English-Only policy. Not only were they able to be productive members of society and provide for themselves, but they were able to quickly learned English at the friendly workplace. The bakery owner gained a loyal customer because chose to focus on the benefits of immigrant employees. All companies want the maximum po tential customer base. Immigrant and bilingual employees with invite new demographics of customers, increasing customer base. Companies need immigrant and bilingual employees. In conclusion American companies will increase their income potential and reduce discrimination among employees if they get rid of their English-Only policies. No one benefits from enforcing these limiting rules. The minority group(s) upon who these rules are enforced are being stripped of their freedom of speech. Language is part of a person’s identity and should not be silenced. Not only does the law target minority groups who are already struggling to assimilate into a new culture, but it also promotes further segregation. As in one of the examples, workers openly harassed their coworkers, backed by a discriminative English-Only rule at Delano Regional Medical Center. Not only are English-Only rules at a workplace a violation of the basic human freedom, they are very costly to companies. The negative publicity created by such cases can have an even more devastating effect on companies than the millions of dollars they must pay out to settle the case. English-Only policies create a hostile workplace environment, reduce employee moral, promote discrimination, and reflect very poorly on the name of the company, while removing such policies will increase customer base and create an overall better economy; therefore, American companies should eliminate English-Only policies

Moral and Social Philosophy

Moral philosophy is focused on the habits, customs, and values of a certain individual (Wikipedia, 2007). It has the following sub-categories: meta-ethics; normative ethics; as well as, applied ethics (Wikipedia, 2007). One of the major contributors of this school of thought is Immanuel Kant who said that â€Å"deontology† holds that an act is considered to be right if it goes with the moral rule or principle (Ethical.., 2001). For example, parents will have to decide whether or not to have their children immunized. Since it is required by the law then the parents will have to allow their children to be immunized; it is the right thing to do because it goes along with the moral rule or principle (Ethical.., 2007). Social Philosophy Social philosophy is technically defined as a study which addresses dilemmas concerning social/human behaviors (Wikipedia, 2007). It covers the following areas: effects of culture, effects of science, revolution, social contract, etc (Wikipedia, 2007). Simply put, social philosophy concerns itself with moral principles as applied to problems of equality, freedom, as well as, justice (Wikipedia, 2007). One of the major contributors of social philosophy is John Locke who stated that: men are equal, free, as well as independent; thus, they possess the faculty of reason, which gives them the right to preserve their property including their life, liberty, as well as, estates (Bennagen, 2000). In addition to that, he believes that the state of nature is one that is in a state of perfect equality, freedom, liberty, and rationality but it is possible to turn into a state of war especially in cases where there exists the absence of a common judge (Bennagen, 2000). Thus, for him, entering into social contract is necessitated so as not to go through anything that is similar to the state of war (Bennagen, 2000). Last but not least, he also believes that the people have the right to resist a government that tyrannical in nature (Bennagen, 2000). Subjectivism Subjectivism is the act of making moral judgments, however, based on an individual’s emotion (Ethics.., n.d.). For example, in judging if something is â€Å"nice†, an individual has to have a positive emotions about it otherwise it should not be labeled or declared as something â€Å"nice† (Ethics.., n.d.). Advocates of subjectivism claim that since moral judgments are decided upon subjectively or basing on emotions, then individuals are fully rational during such a period (Ethics.., n.d.). The major problem with subjectivism, however, is that, since it is based on emotions, the person may all the more arrive at wrong decisions or judgments, for example, dating a nice and handsome young but married man may feel nice but that doesn’t mean it is moral to do so (Ethics.., n.d.). One kind of subjectivism is known as metaphysical subjectivism and one of the major contributors of the aforementioned school of thought is Descartes (Wikipedia, 2007). Egoism Ethical egoism or simply egoism is doing something to fulfill an individual’s own interest whether it may be good or harmful to other people (Wikipedia, 2007). Egoism does not take into consideration the well-being of others nor does it do anything to be of assistance or help to others (Wikipedia, 2007). One of the contributors of this particular school of thought is Thomas Hobbes who advocated that self-interests should be pursued and practiced so that freedom may be equal to everybody (Wikipedia, 2007). He also believes that even if there is self-interest, it is impossible that an individual may be harmed because humans are typically the same when it comes to their wants and needs (Wikipedia, 2007). Virtue Ethics Virtue Ethics is where Aristotle’s moral theory is taken into consideration (Ethical.., 2001). Here, it is said that â€Å"an act is right if it is what a virtuous agent would do in the circumstances† (Ethical.., 2001). Let’s take for instance, the case on immunization, currently, there is a dilemma with regards to having every child immunized before going to school, utilizing virtue ethics in critical thinking, parents may decide that they will allow their children to be immunized because it is not only good for their children, but it will benefit all the others as well (Ethical.., 2001). Ethical Relativism Ethical relativism is where social, personal, historical, as well as, cultural considerations are the basis of one’s judgment or decision (Wikipedia, 2007). A contributor to this school of thought named Jean-Paul Sartre in fact claims that somebody’s morals, if any, will be proven only if the person follows certain social norms (Wikipedia, 2007). Utilitarianism John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism is built on the concept or principles of utility, which he believes is the foundation of morals (Bennagen, 2000). It holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness (Bennagen, 2000). Happiness, according to John Stuart Mill, is equated to pleasure and the absence of pain, while unhappiness, for him, refers to pain and the privation of pleasure (Bennagen, 2000). Categorical Imperative This rationally dictates a course of action independent of whatever goals the agent may have (Encarta, 2007). By this, Immanuel Kant also meant that the moral law is categorical or that it applies to all situations, and by imperative, he meant, it is commanding, thus making it absolutely authoritative (Gaarder, 1991). Immanuel Kant stated the Categorical Imperative in two key formulations: 1) Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a general natural law (Encarta, 2007), meaning, that it should apply to all people in all societies at all times (Gaarder, 1991); and 2) Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only (Encarta, 2007). By this statement, he meant, we should not exploit others to our own advantage (Gaarder, 1991). References Bennagen, Pia. (2000). Social, Economic and Political Thought. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. Encarta. (2005). Immanuel Kant. Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://www.encarta.com. Ethical Theories Compared. (2001). Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://www.trinity.edu. Ethics 02 – Subjectivism. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://www.jcu.edu/philosophy/gensler/et/et-02-00.htm Gaarder, Jostein. (1991). Sophie’s World. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux Inc., Wikipedia. (2007). Cogito Ergo Sum. Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito_Ergo_Sum Wikipedia. (2007). Egoism. Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_egoism Wikipedia. (2007). Ethical Relativism. Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_relativism Wikipedia. (2007). Moral Philosophy. Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_philosophy Wikipedia. (2007). Social Philosophy. Retrieved May 26, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_philosophy